From 9c2a817cdd466b8368030dfb7999775858729620 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Wed, 1 Jul 2026 03:47:25 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 01/13] [feature] Add Django admin workflow for mass command
 execution and real-time monitoring #1345

- Custom admin change form with filtered/paginated commands table
- Merged skipped device rows into main commands table
- Colored status using CSS variables
- Real-time polling for in-progress batches
- Custom CSS and JS for batch command admin

Fixes #1345
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 210 +++++++++++++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |   2 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 144 ++++++++++++
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     |  43 ++++
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            | 174 +++++++++++++++
 5 files changed, 570 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index f15c98d58..60d853b7c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,17 +1,20 @@
+import json
 from datetime import timedelta
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
 from django.contrib import admin
+from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
 from django.urls import path, resolve
-from django.utils.html import format_html
+from django.utils.html import format_html, format_html_join
+from django.utils.safestring import mark_safe
 from django.utils.timezone import localtime
 from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
 
 from openwisp_users.multitenancy import MultitenantOrgFilter
-from openwisp_utils.admin import TimeReadonlyAdminMixin
+from openwisp_utils.admin import ReadOnlyAdmin, TimeReadonlyAdminMixin
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
@@ -21,6 +24,7 @@
 Credentials = swapper.load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 DeviceConnection = swapper.load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
+BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
 class CredentialsForm(forms.ModelForm):
@@ -215,3 +219,205 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
     CommandInline,
 ]
 DeviceAdmin.add_reversion_following(follow=["deviceconnection_set"])
+
+
+class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
+    ordering = ("-created",)
+    list_display = [
+        "id",
+        "organization_display",
+        "status",
+        "type",
+        "created",
+        "total_devices",
+    ]
+    list_filter = [MultitenantOrgFilter, "status", "type"]
+    list_select_related = ("organization",)
+    search_fields = ["id"]
+    change_form_template = (
+        "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
+    )
+    device_commands_per_page = 20
+    exclude = ("devices",)
+    fields = [
+        "organization_display",
+        "total_devices",
+        "colored_status",
+        "type",
+        "formatted_input",
+        "group",
+        "location",
+        "display_skipped_devices",
+        "created",
+        "modified",
+    ]
+
+    class Media:
+        css = {
+            "all": [
+                "admin/css/changelists.css",
+                "admin/css/ow-filters.css",
+                "connection/css/batch-command.css",
+            ]
+        }
+        js = [
+            "admin/js/ow-filter.js",
+            "connection/js/batch-command.js",
+        ]
+
+    def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
+        return self.fields or []
+
+    def organization_display(self, obj):
+        if obj.organization:
+            return obj.organization.name
+        return _("All")
+
+    organization_display.short_description = _("organization")
+    organization_display.admin_order_field = "organization"
+
+    def colored_status(self, obj):
+        css_class = f"command-status {obj.status}"
+        return format_html(
+            '<span class="{0}">{1}</span>',
+            css_class,
+            obj.get_status_display(),
+        )
+
+    colored_status.short_description = _("status")
+
+    def formatted_input(self, obj):
+        if not obj.input:
+            return "-"
+        return obj.input.get("command", obj.input)
+
+    formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
+
+    def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
+        if not obj.skipped_devices:
+            return "-"
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
+        lines = [str(count)]
+        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+            device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+            name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
+            lines.append(format_html("{}: {}", name, ", ".join(errors)))
+        return format_html(
+            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}</div>',
+            format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
+        )
+
+    display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
+
+    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, current_status):
+        filter_specs = []
+        params = request.GET.copy()
+
+        def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
+            q = params.copy()
+            q.pop(param_name, None)
+            if value:
+                q[param_name] = value
+            qs = q.urlencode()
+            query_string = f"?{qs}" if qs else ""
+            return {
+                "display": display,
+                "selected": current_value == value,
+                "query_string": query_string,
+            }
+
+        status_choices = []
+        for status_value, display_name in (
+            (("", _("All")),) + Command.STATUS_CHOICES + (("skipped", _("Skipped")),)
+        ):
+            status_choices.append(
+                _make_choice(current_status, display_name, "status", status_value)
+            )
+
+        class StatusFilter:
+            title = _("status")
+            choices = status_choices
+
+        filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
+        return filter_specs
+
+    def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
+        per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
+        paginator = Paginator(list(items), per_page)
+        page_number = page_param or 1
+        try:
+            page_obj = paginator.page(page_number)
+        except (PageNotAnInteger, EmptyPage):
+            page_obj = paginator.page(1)
+        return page_obj, paginator, page_obj.object_list
+
+    def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
+        extra_context = extra_context or {}
+        obj = self.get_object(request, object_id)
+        if obj:
+            Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+            commands_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related(
+                "device"
+            )
+            search_query = request.GET.get("q", "")
+            if search_query:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
+            current_status = request.GET.get("status", "")
+            if current_status and current_status != "skipped":
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(status=current_status)
+            rows = []
+            for cmd in commands_qs:
+                rows.append(
+                    {
+                        "device_name": cmd.device.name,
+                        "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
+                        "status": cmd.status,
+                        "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
+                        "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
+                        "created": cmd.created,
+                        "is_skipped": False,
+                    }
+                )
+            if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
+                for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+                    device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+                    name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
+                    if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
+                        continue
+                    rows.append(
+                        {
+                            "device_name": name,
+                            "device_pk": pk_str,
+                            "status": "skipped",
+                            "status_display": _("Skipped"),
+                            "output": ", ".join(errors),
+                            "created": None,
+                            "is_skipped": True,
+                        }
+                    )
+
+            def _sort_key(row):
+                priority = {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}
+                return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
+
+            rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
+            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, current_status)
+            page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
+                rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
+            )
+            extra_context.update(
+                {
+                    "commands": commands,
+                    "page_obj": page_obj,
+                    "paginator": paginator,
+                    "filter_specs": filter_specs,
+                    "has_active_filters": any(
+                        request.GET.get(param) for param in ["status"]
+                    ),
+                }
+            )
+        return super().change_view(request, object_id, extra_context=extra_context)
+
+
+admin.site.register(BatchCommand, BatchCommandAdmin)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 75290a2d7..edc972df2 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -809,7 +809,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     @cached_property
     def total_devices(self):
-        return self.batch_commands.count()
+        return self.batch_commands.count() + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
     @property
     def successful(self):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..cff9510f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+#batchcommand_form .submit-row {
+  display: none;
+}
+
+.commands-title {
+  font-size: 22px;
+  font-weight: 300;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+.search-section {
+  padding: 20px;
+}
+
+.search-form {
+  display: flex;
+  align-items: center;
+}
+
+#main #content .search-icon {
+  width: 20px;
+  height: 20px;
+  margin-right: 15px;
+  font-size: 16px;
+  margin-top: -3px;
+}
+
+#main #content .search-input {
+  padding: 10px 15px;
+}
+
+#main #content .search-button {
+  padding: 10px 20px;
+  margin-left: 15px;
+}
+
+.filter-clear-link:hover {
+  color: var(--ow-color-fg-darker);
+}
+
+.results-table {
+  width: 100%;
+  border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+
+#main #content .device-link {
+  color: var(--ow-color-primary);
+  font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.device-name-disabled {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-style: italic;
+}
+
+.empty-results {
+  padding: 40px;
+  text-align: center;
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-style: italic;
+}
+
+.pagination {
+  padding: 15px 20px;
+  text-align: right;
+  border-top: 2px solid var(--hairline-color);
+  background: var(--darkened-bg);
+}
+
+.pagination a {
+  color: var(--body-fg);
+  text-decoration: none;
+  margin: 0 5px;
+}
+
+.pagination .current-page {
+  margin: 0 10px;
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+}
+
+.paginator {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  padding: 10px 20px;
+  border-bottom: 1px solid var(--hairline-color);
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.command-status {
+  font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.command-status.success {
+  color: var(--ow-color-success);
+}
+
+.command-status.failed {
+  color: var(--error-fg);
+}
+
+.command-status.in-progress {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+}
+
+.command-status.skipped {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  opacity: 0.7;
+}
+
+.command-output {
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+.command-output pre {
+  white-space: pre-wrap;
+  word-wrap: break-word;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+  font: inherit;
+  color: inherit;
+  background: transparent;
+}
+
+.skipped-devices-list {
+  line-height: 1.7;
+}
+
+.field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+/* Adjustments for list filters */
+#main #content .left-arrow {
+  left: -1.125rem;
+}
+#main #content .right-arrow {
+  right: -1.125rem;
+}
+#main #content #ow-changelist-filter {
+  padding: 1.25rem 0rem;
+}
+#main #content .filters-top {
+  margin-bottom: 0.5rem;
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b066770aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+(function () {
+  "use strict";
+
+  var pollInterval = 3000;
+  var pollTimer = null;
+
+  function getBatchStatus() {
+    var statusEl = document.querySelector(".field-status .readonly");
+    if (!statusEl) return null;
+    var text = statusEl.textContent.trim().toLowerCase();
+    if (text.indexOf("in progress") !== -1) return "in-progress";
+    if (text.indexOf("success") !== -1) return "success";
+    if (text.indexOf("failed") !== -1) return "failed";
+    if (text.indexOf("idle") !== -1) return "idle";
+    return null;
+  }
+
+  function shouldPoll() {
+    var status = getBatchStatus();
+    return status === "in-progress" || status === "idle";
+  }
+
+  function reloadPage() {
+    window.location.reload();
+  }
+
+  function startPolling() {
+    stopPolling();
+    if (!shouldPoll()) return;
+    pollTimer = setInterval(reloadPage, pollInterval);
+  }
+
+  function stopPolling() {
+    if (pollTimer) {
+      clearInterval(pollTimer);
+      pollTimer = null;
+    }
+  }
+
+  document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function () {
+    startPolling();
+  });
+})();
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..81d0e812d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -0,0 +1,174 @@
+{% extends "admin/change_form.html" %}
+{% load i18n admin_urls static admin_list ow_tags %}
+
+{% block extrahead %}
+{{ block.super }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/changelists.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/ow-filters.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content %}
+{{ block.super }}
+
+<!-- Commands Section -->
+<h1 class="commands-title">{% trans "Commands" %}</h1>
+
+<!-- OpenWISP Filter Section -->
+{% if filter_specs %}
+<div id="ow-changelist-filter">
+  <div class="filters-bottom">
+    <span class="left-arrow">
+      <img src="{% static "ui/openwisp/images/left-arrow.svg" %}" alt="{% trans 'left' %}">
+    </span>
+    <span class="right-arrow">
+      <img src="{% static "ui/openwisp/images/right-arrow.svg" %}" alt="{% trans 'right' %}">
+    </span>
+    <div aria-label="{% trans 'changelist filters region' %}" tabindex="0" class="ow-filter-slider">
+      <div class="slider">
+        {% for spec in filter_specs %}
+        <div class="ow-filter {{ spec.title|join_string }}">
+          {% for choice in spec.choices %}
+          {% if choice.selected %}
+          <div id="{{ spec.title|join_string }}" aria-label="{% trans 'by' %} {{ spec.title }}" tabindex="0"
+            aria-controls="choices-{{ spec.title|join_string }}" role="button" aria-expanded="false"
+            class="filter-title">
+            <h3>
+              {% blocktrans with filter_title=spec.title %} By {{ filter_title }} {% endblocktrans %}
+            </h3>
+            <div class="selected-option" tabindex="0" title="{{ choice.display }}">
+              {{ choice.display }}
+            </div>
+          </div>
+          {% endif %}
+          {% endfor %}
+          <div id="choices-{{ spec.title|join_string }}" role="region" aria-labelledby="{{ spec.title|join_string }}"
+            class="filter-options">
+            <ul>
+              {% for choice in spec.choices %}
+              <li>
+                <a {% if choice.selected %} class="selected" {% endif %}
+                  title="{{ choice.display | default_if_none:'------'}}" href="{{ choice.query_string|iriencode }}">
+                  {{ choice.display | default_if_none:'------' }}
+                </a>
+              </li>
+              {% endfor %}
+            </ul>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+        {% endfor %}
+      </div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+  <div class="filters-top">
+    <h2>{% trans 'Filter' %}</h2>
+    <div class="filters-control">
+      {% if has_active_filters %}
+      <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
+        <a href="?{% if request.GET.q %}q={{ request.GET.q|urlencode }}{% endif %}" class="filter-clear-link">&#10006; {% trans "Clear all filters" %}</a>
+      </h3>
+      {% endif %}
+      {% if filter_specs|length > 4 %}
+      <button id="ow-apply-filter" class="danger-btn">{% trans "Apply Filters" %}</button>
+      {% endif %}
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+{% endif %}
+
+<!-- Search Bar -->
+<div class="search-section">
+  <form method="get" class="search-form">
+    <svg class="search-icon" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2">
+      <circle cx="11" cy="11" r="8"></circle>
+      <path d="m21 21-4.35-4.35"></path>
+    </svg>
+    <input type="text" id="searchbar" name="q" aria-label="{% trans 'Search devices...' %}"
+      placeholder="{% trans 'Search devices...' %}" value="{{ request.GET.q }}" class="search-input">
+    <button type="submit" class="search-button">{% trans "Search" %}</button>
+    {% for param, value in request.GET.items %}
+    {% if param != 'q' and param != 'page' %}
+    <input type="hidden" name="{{ param }}" value="{{ value }}">
+    {% endif %}
+    {% endfor %}
+  </form>
+</div>
+
+<!-- Results Table -->
+<div class="results-container">
+  <table id="result_list" class="results-table">
+    <thead>
+      <tr>
+        <th>{% trans "Device" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Status" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Output" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Timestamp" %}</th>
+      </tr>
+    </thead>
+    <tbody>
+      {% for command in commands %}
+      <tr class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
+        <td>
+          {% if command.is_skipped %}
+          <span class="device-name-disabled">{{ command.device_name }}</span>
+          {% else %}
+          <a href="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' command.device_pk %}#command_set-2-group"
+            class="device-link" aria-label="{% trans 'View recent commands' %} {{ command.device_name }}">
+            {{ command.device_name }}
+          </a>
+          {% endif %}
+        </td>
+        <td>
+          <span class="command-status {{ command.status }}">{{ command.status_display }}</span>
+        </td>
+        <td class="command-output">
+          <pre>{{ command.output|default:"-" }}</pre>
+        </td>
+        <td>{{ command.created|date|default:"-" }}</td>
+      </tr>
+      {% empty %}
+      <tr>
+        <td colspan="4" class="empty-results">{% trans "No commands found." %}</td>
+      </tr>
+      {% endfor %}
+    </tbody>
+  </table>
+
+  <!-- Results Count -->
+  {% if paginator %}
+  <p class="paginator">
+    {% blocktrans count counter=paginator.count %}
+      {{ counter }} command
+      {% plural %}{{ counter }} commands
+    {% endblocktrans %}
+  </p>
+  {% endif %}
+
+  <!-- Pagination -->
+  {% if page_obj.has_other_pages %}
+  <div class="pagination">
+    <span class="step-links">
+      {% if page_obj.has_previous %}
+      <a href="?{% for key,value in request.GET.items %}{% if key != 'page' %}{{ key }}={{ value|urlencode }}&{% endif %}{% endfor %}page={{ page_obj.previous_page_number }}">
+        {% trans 'Previous' %}
+      </a>
+      {% endif %}
+      <span class="current-page">
+        {% trans 'Page' %} {{ page_obj.number }} {% trans 'of' %} {{ page_obj.paginator.num_pages }}
+      </span>
+      {% if page_obj.has_next %}
+      <a href="?{% for key,value in request.GET.items %}{% if key != 'page' %}{{ key }}={{ value|urlencode }}&{% endif %}{% endfor %}page={{ page_obj.next_page_number }}">
+        {% trans 'Next' %}
+      </a>
+      {% endif %}
+    </span>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block footer %}
+{{ block.super }}
+<script src="{% static "admin/js/ow-filter.js" %}"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="{% static 'connection/js/batch-command.js' %}"></script>
+{% endblock %}

From f5077a03db73f1fff8a8de2ef75038f5ca52b369 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 2 Jul 2026 23:49:48 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 02/13] [feature] Add affected_devices, colored changelist
 status, and label admin link

- Add  cached_property on AbstractBatchCommand (excludes skipped)
- Use  in changelist list_display for consistent status colors
- Replace ID with label as the clickable link in admin changelist
- Add  CSS to command-inline.css for consistency
- Add label, notes to change form fields; reorder columns (created last, affected_devices before created)
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py        | 18 +++++++++++++-----
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py  |  4 ++++
 .../static/connection/css/command-inline.css   |  4 ++++
 3 files changed, 21 insertions(+), 5 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 60d853b7c..e999dc073 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -224,16 +224,17 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     ordering = ("-created",)
     list_display = [
-        "id",
+        "label",
         "organization_display",
-        "status",
+        "colored_status",
         "type",
+        "affected_devices",
         "created",
-        "total_devices",
     ]
+    list_display_links = ["label"]
     list_filter = [MultitenantOrgFilter, "status", "type"]
     list_select_related = ("organization",)
-    search_fields = ["id"]
+    search_fields = ["label"]
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
@@ -241,7 +242,9 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     exclude = ("devices",)
     fields = [
         "organization_display",
-        "total_devices",
+        "label",
+        "notes",
+        "affected_devices",
         "colored_status",
         "type",
         "formatted_input",
@@ -293,6 +296,11 @@ def formatted_input(self, obj):
 
     formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
 
+    def affected_devices(self, obj):
+        return obj.affected_devices
+
+    affected_devices.short_description = _("affected devices")
+
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index edc972df2..1037f9ece 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -811,6 +811,10 @@ def __str__(self):
     def total_devices(self):
         return self.batch_commands.count() + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
+    @cached_property
+    def affected_devices(self):
+        return self.batch_commands.count()
+
     @property
     def successful(self):
         return self.batch_commands.filter(status="success").count()
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
index 0da80c341..8deda6c5e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
@@ -242,6 +242,10 @@ li.commands:not(.recent) {
 .command-status.in-progress {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
+.command-status.skipped {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  opacity: 0.7;
+}
 .command-status {
   font-weight: bold;
 }

From 45b222473a7cd8e88f066ad528d7551a8cdbb62f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 7 Jul 2026 02:50:32 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 03/13] [fix] Restructure

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 68 ++++++++++++++-----
 openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py     | 15 ++++
 .../static/connection/css/command-inline.css  |  4 --
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 43 ------------
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  1 -
 5 files changed, 65 insertions(+), 66 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
 delete mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index e999dc073..2409c6595 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
+from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
 
@@ -222,7 +223,6 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 
 
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
-    ordering = ("-created",)
     list_display = [
         "label",
         "organization_display",
@@ -231,10 +231,23 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "affected_devices",
         "created",
     ]
-    list_display_links = ["label"]
-    list_filter = [MultitenantOrgFilter, "status", "type"]
+    ordering = ("-created",)
+    list_filter = [
+        MultitenantOrgFilter,
+        "status",
+        "type",
+        GroupFilter,
+        LocationFilter,
+    ]
     list_select_related = ("organization",)
-    search_fields = ["label"]
+    search_fields = [
+        "label",
+        "notes",
+        "organization__name",
+        "devices__name",
+        "location__name",
+        "group__name",
+    ]
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
@@ -244,16 +257,28 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "organization_display",
         "label",
         "notes",
-        "affected_devices",
         "colored_status",
         "type",
         "formatted_input",
+        "affected_devices",
         "group",
         "location",
         "display_skipped_devices",
         "created",
         "modified",
     ]
+    readonly_fields = [
+        "organization_display",
+        "colored_status",
+        "type",
+        "formatted_input",
+        "affected_devices",
+        "display_skipped_devices",
+        "group",
+        "location",
+        "created",
+        "modified",
+    ]
 
     class Media:
         css = {
@@ -263,13 +288,18 @@ class Media:
                 "connection/css/batch-command.css",
             ]
         }
-        js = [
-            "admin/js/ow-filter.js",
-            "connection/js/batch-command.js",
-        ]
 
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
-        return self.fields or []
+        fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
+        return fields + list(self.__class__.readonly_fields)
+
+    def _get_commands(self, request, obj):
+        qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related("device")
+        if not request.user.is_superuser:
+            qs = qs.filter(
+                device__organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
+            )
+        return qs
 
     def organization_display(self, obj):
         if obj.organization:
@@ -305,10 +335,12 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
         Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
+        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
+        count = len(pks)
         lines = [str(count)]
         for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-            device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+            device = devices.get(pk_str)
             name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
             lines.append(format_html("{}: {}", name, ", ".join(errors)))
         return format_html(
@@ -318,7 +350,7 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
 
-    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, current_status):
+    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, obj, current_status):
         filter_specs = []
         params = request.GET.copy()
 
@@ -365,9 +397,7 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
         obj = self.get_object(request, object_id)
         if obj:
             Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-            commands_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related(
-                "device"
-            )
+            commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
             search_query = request.GET.get("q", "")
             if search_query:
                 commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
@@ -388,8 +418,10 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                     }
                 )
             if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
+                pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
                 for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-                    device = Device.objects.filter(pk=pk_str).first()
+                    device = devices.get(pk_str)
                     name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
                     if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
                         continue
@@ -410,7 +442,7 @@ def _sort_key(row):
                 return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
 
             rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
-            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, current_status)
+            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, obj, current_status)
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
                 rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b0623c387
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
+
+from openwisp_users.multitenancy import MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter
+
+
+class GroupFilter(MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter):
+    field_name = "group"
+    parameter_name = "group_id"
+    title = _("group")
+
+
+class LocationFilter(MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter):
+    field_name = "location"
+    parameter_name = "location_id"
+    title = _("location")
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
index 8deda6c5e..0da80c341 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/command-inline.css
@@ -242,10 +242,6 @@ li.commands:not(.recent) {
 .command-status.in-progress {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
-.command-status.skipped {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  opacity: 0.7;
-}
 .command-status {
   font-weight: bold;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
deleted file mode 100644
index b066770aa..000000000
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,43 +0,0 @@
-(function () {
-  "use strict";
-
-  var pollInterval = 3000;
-  var pollTimer = null;
-
-  function getBatchStatus() {
-    var statusEl = document.querySelector(".field-status .readonly");
-    if (!statusEl) return null;
-    var text = statusEl.textContent.trim().toLowerCase();
-    if (text.indexOf("in progress") !== -1) return "in-progress";
-    if (text.indexOf("success") !== -1) return "success";
-    if (text.indexOf("failed") !== -1) return "failed";
-    if (text.indexOf("idle") !== -1) return "idle";
-    return null;
-  }
-
-  function shouldPoll() {
-    var status = getBatchStatus();
-    return status === "in-progress" || status === "idle";
-  }
-
-  function reloadPage() {
-    window.location.reload();
-  }
-
-  function startPolling() {
-    stopPolling();
-    if (!shouldPoll()) return;
-    pollTimer = setInterval(reloadPage, pollInterval);
-  }
-
-  function stopPolling() {
-    if (pollTimer) {
-      clearInterval(pollTimer);
-      pollTimer = null;
-    }
-  }
-
-  document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function () {
-    startPolling();
-  });
-})();
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 81d0e812d..43ae2a83c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -170,5 +170,4 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 {% block footer %}
 {{ block.super }}
 <script src="{% static "admin/js/ow-filter.js" %}"></script>
-<script type="text/javascript" src="{% static 'connection/js/batch-command.js' %}"></script>
 {% endblock %}

From 95c01074cd292db25eeb676591a49d94dcd29613 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 24 Jul 2026 19:15:08 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 04/13] [fix] Add filters

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py   | 155 +++++++++++++++++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py |  21 +++
 2 files changed, 169 insertions(+), 7 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 2409c6595..970eae743 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-import json
 from datetime import timedelta
 
 import reversion
@@ -18,7 +17,7 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
-from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter
+from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
 
@@ -235,7 +234,7 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     list_filter = [
         MultitenantOrgFilter,
         "status",
-        "type",
+        TypeFilter,
         GroupFilter,
         LocationFilter,
     ]
@@ -350,7 +349,15 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
 
-    def _build_filter_specs(self, request, obj, current_status):
+    def _build_filter_specs(
+        self,
+        request,
+        obj,
+        current_status,
+        current_location=None,
+        current_group=None,
+        current_org=None,
+    ):
         filter_specs = []
         params = request.GET.copy()
 
@@ -380,6 +387,103 @@ class StatusFilter:
             choices = status_choices
 
         filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
+
+        # Location filter
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        location_qs = (
+            Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
+            .exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
+            .values_list(
+                "devicelocation__location__id",
+                "devicelocation__location__name",
+            )
+            .distinct()
+        )
+        location_choices = []
+        location_choices.append(
+            _make_choice(current_location or "", _("All"), "location_id", "")
+        )
+        for loc_id, loc_name in location_qs:
+            if loc_id:
+                location_choices.append(
+                    _make_choice(
+                        current_location or "",
+                        loc_name,
+                        "location_id",
+                        str(loc_id),
+                    )
+                )
+
+        if len(location_choices) > 1:
+
+            class LocationFilterCls:
+                title = _("location")
+                choices = location_choices
+
+            filter_specs.append(LocationFilterCls())
+
+        # Group filter
+        group_qs = (
+            Device.objects.filter(
+                command__batch_command=obj,
+                group__isnull=False,
+            )
+            .values_list("group__id", "group__name")
+            .distinct()
+        )
+        group_choices = []
+        group_choices.append(
+            _make_choice(current_group or "", _("All"), "group_id", "")
+        )
+        for grp_id, grp_name in group_qs:
+            if grp_id:
+                group_choices.append(
+                    _make_choice(
+                        current_group or "",
+                        grp_name,
+                        "group_id",
+                        str(grp_id),
+                    )
+                )
+
+        if len(group_choices) > 1:
+
+            class GroupFilterCls:
+                title = _("device group")
+                choices = group_choices
+
+            filter_specs.append(GroupFilterCls())
+
+        # Organization filter (superusers only)
+        if request.user.is_superuser:
+            org_qs = (
+                Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
+                .values_list("organization__id", "organization__name")
+                .distinct()
+            )
+            org_choices = []
+            org_choices.append(
+                _make_choice(current_org or "", _("All"), "organization_id", "")
+            )
+            for org_id, org_name in org_qs:
+                if org_id:
+                    org_choices.append(
+                        _make_choice(
+                            current_org or "",
+                            org_name,
+                            "organization_id",
+                            str(org_id),
+                        )
+                    )
+
+            if len(org_choices) > 1:
+
+                class OrganizationFilterCls:
+                    title = _("organization")
+                    choices = org_choices
+
+                filter_specs.append(OrganizationFilterCls())
+
         return filter_specs
 
     def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
@@ -402,8 +506,19 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
             if search_query:
                 commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
             current_status = request.GET.get("status", "")
+            current_location = request.GET.get("location_id", "")
+            current_group = request.GET.get("group_id", "")
+            current_org = request.GET.get("organization_id", "")
             if current_status and current_status != "skipped":
                 commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(status=current_status)
+            if current_location:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(
+                    device__devicelocation__location_id=current_location
+                )
+            if current_group:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__group_id=current_group)
+            if current_org:
+                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__organization_id=current_org)
             rows = []
             for cmd in commands_qs:
                 rows.append(
@@ -419,10 +534,29 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                 )
             if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
                 pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
+                device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
+                if current_location:
+                    DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+                    device_locations = set(
+                        DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
+                            device_id__in=pks,
+                            location_id=current_location,
+                        ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
+                    )
+                else:
+                    device_locations = None
+                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
                 for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
                     device = devices.get(pk_str)
-                    name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
+                    if not device:
+                        continue
+                    if current_org and str(device.organization_id) != current_org:
+                        continue
+                    if current_group and str(device.group_id) != current_group:
+                        continue
+                    if current_location and pk_str not in device_locations:
+                        continue
+                    name = device.name
                     if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
                         continue
                     rows.append(
@@ -442,7 +576,14 @@ def _sort_key(row):
                 return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
 
             rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
-            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(request, obj, current_status)
+            filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
+                request,
+                obj,
+                current_status,
+                current_location=current_location,
+                current_group=current_group,
+                current_org=current_org,
+            )
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
                 rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
index b0623c387..7d03b9be0 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/filters.py
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
+from django.contrib import admin
 from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
+from swapper import load_model
 
 from openwisp_users.multitenancy import MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter
 
@@ -13,3 +15,22 @@ class LocationFilter(MultitenantRelatedOrgFilter):
     field_name = "location"
     parameter_name = "location_id"
     title = _("location")
+
+
+class TypeFilter(admin.SimpleListFilter):
+    title = _("type")
+    parameter_name = "type"
+
+    def lookups(self, request, model_admin):
+        BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
+        qs = BatchCommand.objects.all()
+        if not request.user.is_superuser:
+            qs = qs.filter(organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed)
+        types = qs.values_list("type", flat=True).distinct()
+        choices = dict(BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices)
+        return [(t, choices.get(t, t)) for t in types]
+
+    def queryset(self, request, queryset):
+        if self.value():
+            return queryset.filter(type=self.value())
+        return queryset

From bca0f2810223784a5e0c2c2c3dd5c626f04b606f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 28 Jul 2026 02:42:30 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 05/13] [feature] Add new execute and confirm page

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 432 +++++++++-----
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |   2 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 536 ++++++++++++++++++
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 157 +++++
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        | 155 +++++
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        | 159 ++++++
 6 files changed, 1287 insertions(+), 154 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 970eae743..47f42d760 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,11 +1,14 @@
 from datetime import timedelta
+from types import SimpleNamespace
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
 from django.contrib import admin
+from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
+from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
 from django.urls import path, resolve
 from django.utils.html import format_html, format_html_join
 from django.utils.safestring import mark_safe
@@ -39,6 +42,43 @@ class Meta:
         widgets = {"input": CommandSchemaWidget}
 
 
+class BatchCommandExecutionForm(forms.ModelForm):
+    """Form layout for the mass command execution workflow.
+
+    The execution and confirmation behavior is intentionally added separately.
+    Keeping the form here lets the custom admin view use the same model fields
+    and tenant-scoped choices as the eventual workflow.
+    """
+
+    class Meta:
+        model = BatchCommand
+        fields = [
+            "organization",
+            "label",
+            "notes",
+            "type",
+            "input",
+            "group",
+            "location",
+            "devices",
+        ]
+        widgets = {
+            "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
+            "input": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 5}),
+            "devices": forms.SelectMultiple(attrs={"size": 8}),
+        }
+
+    def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
+        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
+        if request is None or request.user.is_superuser:
+            return
+        organization_ids = request.user.organizations_managed
+        for field_name in ("organization", "group", "location", "devices"):
+            self.fields[field_name].queryset = self.fields[field_name].queryset.filter(
+                organization_id__in=organization_ids
+            )
+
+
 @admin.register(Credentials)
 class CredentialsAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, TimeReadonlyAdminMixin, admin.ModelAdmin):
     list_display = (
@@ -222,6 +262,8 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 
 
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
+    execute_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html"
+    confirm_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
     list_display = [
         "label",
         "organization_display",
@@ -288,6 +330,108 @@ class Media:
             ]
         }
 
+    def get_urls(self):
+        options = self.model._meta
+        return [
+            path(
+                "execute/",
+                self.admin_site.admin_view(self.execute_command_view),
+                name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_execute",
+            ),
+            path(
+                "confirm/",
+                self.admin_site.admin_view(self.confirm_command_view),
+                name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_confirm",
+            ),
+        ] + super().get_urls()
+
+    def execute_command_view(self, request):
+        """Render the first step of the mass command workflow.
+
+        This page only collects command details for now. The preview and
+        confirmation POST flow will be added in a later change.
+        """
+        permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
+        if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
+            raise PermissionDenied
+        form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
+        context = {
+            **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
+            "title": _("Execute mass command"),
+            "opts": self.model._meta,
+            "form": form,
+            "media": self.media + form.media,
+            "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
+        }
+        return TemplateResponse(request, self.execute_command_template, context)
+
+    def confirm_command_view(self, request):
+        """Render the second step of the mass command workflow.
+
+        Displays a summary of the command to be executed and provides
+        an Execute button to create the BatchCommand.
+        """
+        permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
+        if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
+            raise PermissionDenied
+        command_type = request.GET.get("type", "")
+        label = request.GET.get("label", "")
+        notes = request.GET.get("notes", "")
+        organization_id = request.GET.get("organization", "")
+        group_id = request.GET.get("group", "")
+        location_id = request.GET.get("location", "")
+        device_ids = request.GET.getlist("devices")
+
+        command_type_display = command_type
+        command_description = ""
+        for choice_value, choice_label in BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices:
+            if choice_value == command_type:
+                command_type_display = choice_label
+                break
+
+        targets_parts = []
+        if organization_id:
+            Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
+            try:
+                org = Organization.objects.get(pk=organization_id)
+                targets_parts.append(str(org))
+            except Organization.DoesNotExist:
+                pass
+        if group_id:
+            DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
+            try:
+                group = DeviceGroup.objects.get(pk=group_id)
+                targets_parts.append(str(group))
+            except DeviceGroup.DoesNotExist:
+                pass
+        if location_id:
+            Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
+            try:
+                location = Location.objects.get(pk=location_id)
+                targets_parts.append(str(location))
+            except Location.DoesNotExist:
+                pass
+        targets_display = (
+            ", ".join(targets_parts) if targets_parts else _("All devices")
+        )
+
+        device_count = len(device_ids) if device_ids else 0
+        skipped_devices_count = 0
+
+        context = {
+            **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
+            "title": _("Review mass command"),
+            "opts": self.model._meta,
+            "command_type_display": command_type_display,
+            "command_description": command_description,
+            "targets_display": targets_display,
+            "device_count": device_count,
+            "skipped_devices_count": skipped_devices_count,
+            "media": self.media,
+            "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
+        }
+        return TemplateResponse(request, self.confirm_command_template, context)
+
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
         return fields + list(self.__class__.readonly_fields)
@@ -303,6 +447,8 @@ def _get_commands(self, request, obj):
     def organization_display(self, obj):
         if obj.organization:
             return obj.organization.name
+        # Will return Shared systemwide (no organization) after
+        # https://github.com/openwisp/openwisp-users/issues/238
         return _("All")
 
     organization_display.short_description = _("organization")
@@ -347,7 +493,7 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
             format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
         )
 
-    display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("Skipped devices")
+    display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("skipped devices")
 
     def _build_filter_specs(
         self,
@@ -376,7 +522,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
 
         status_choices = []
         for status_value, display_name in (
-            (("", _("All")),) + Command.STATUS_CHOICES + (("skipped", _("Skipped")),)
+            (("", _("All")),) + Command.STATUS_CHOICES + (("skipped", _("skipped")),)
         ):
             status_choices.append(
                 _make_choice(current_status, display_name, "status", status_value)
@@ -388,104 +534,68 @@ class StatusFilter:
 
         filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
 
-        # Location filter
         Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        location_qs = (
+
+        # Location filter
+        location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+            _("location"),
+            "location_id",
+            current_location or "",
             Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
             .exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
             .values_list(
                 "devicelocation__location__id",
                 "devicelocation__location__name",
             )
-            .distinct()
+            .distinct(),
+            _make_choice,
         )
-        location_choices = []
-        location_choices.append(
-            _make_choice(current_location or "", _("All"), "location_id", "")
-        )
-        for loc_id, loc_name in location_qs:
-            if loc_id:
-                location_choices.append(
-                    _make_choice(
-                        current_location or "",
-                        loc_name,
-                        "location_id",
-                        str(loc_id),
-                    )
-                )
-
-        if len(location_choices) > 1:
-
-            class LocationFilterCls:
-                title = _("location")
-                choices = location_choices
-
-            filter_specs.append(LocationFilterCls())
+        if location_spec:
+            filter_specs.append(location_spec)
 
         # Group filter
-        group_qs = (
+        group_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+            _("device group"),
+            "group_id",
+            current_group or "",
             Device.objects.filter(
                 command__batch_command=obj,
                 group__isnull=False,
             )
             .values_list("group__id", "group__name")
-            .distinct()
-        )
-        group_choices = []
-        group_choices.append(
-            _make_choice(current_group or "", _("All"), "group_id", "")
+            .distinct(),
+            _make_choice,
         )
-        for grp_id, grp_name in group_qs:
-            if grp_id:
-                group_choices.append(
-                    _make_choice(
-                        current_group or "",
-                        grp_name,
-                        "group_id",
-                        str(grp_id),
-                    )
-                )
-
-        if len(group_choices) > 1:
-
-            class GroupFilterCls:
-                title = _("device group")
-                choices = group_choices
-
-            filter_specs.append(GroupFilterCls())
+        if group_spec:
+            filter_specs.append(group_spec)
 
         # Organization filter (superusers only)
         if request.user.is_superuser:
-            org_qs = (
+            org_spec = self._build_related_filter(
+                _("organization"),
+                "organization_id",
+                current_org or "",
                 Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
                 .values_list("organization__id", "organization__name")
-                .distinct()
+                .distinct(),
+                _make_choice,
             )
-            org_choices = []
-            org_choices.append(
-                _make_choice(current_org or "", _("All"), "organization_id", "")
-            )
-            for org_id, org_name in org_qs:
-                if org_id:
-                    org_choices.append(
-                        _make_choice(
-                            current_org or "",
-                            org_name,
-                            "organization_id",
-                            str(org_id),
-                        )
-                    )
-
-            if len(org_choices) > 1:
-
-                class OrganizationFilterCls:
-                    title = _("organization")
-                    choices = org_choices
-
-                filter_specs.append(OrganizationFilterCls())
+            if org_spec:
+                filter_specs.append(org_spec)
 
         return filter_specs
 
+    def _build_related_filter(self, title, param_name, current_value, qs, make_choice):
+        choices = [make_choice(current_value, _("All"), param_name, "")]
+        for obj_id, obj_name in qs:
+            if obj_id:
+                choices.append(
+                    make_choice(current_value, obj_name, param_name, str(obj_id))
+                )
+        if len(choices) <= 1:
+            return None
+        return SimpleNamespace(title=title, choices=choices)
+
     def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
         paginator = Paginator(list(items), per_page)
@@ -496,93 +606,109 @@ def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
             page_obj = paginator.page(1)
         return page_obj, paginator, page_obj.object_list
 
+    def _get_active_filters(self, request):
+        return {
+            "q": request.GET.get("q", ""),
+            "status": request.GET.get("status", ""),
+            "location_id": request.GET.get("location_id", ""),
+            "group_id": request.GET.get("group_id", ""),
+            "organization_id": request.GET.get("organization_id", ""),
+        }
+
+    def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
+        if filters["q"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__name__icontains=filters["q"])
+        status = filters["status"]
+        if status and status != "skipped":
+            qs = qs.filter(status=status)
+        if filters["location_id"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__devicelocation__location_id=filters["location_id"])
+        if filters["group_id"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__group_id=filters["group_id"])
+        if filters["organization_id"]:
+            qs = qs.filter(device__organization_id=filters["organization_id"])
+        return qs
+
+    def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+        device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
+        location_id = filters["location_id"]
+        if location_id:
+            DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+            device_locations = set(
+                DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
+                    device_id__in=pks,
+                    location_id=location_id,
+                ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
+            )
+        else:
+            device_locations = None
+        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
+        rows = []
+        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+            device = devices.get(pk_str)
+            if not device:
+                continue
+            if (
+                filters["organization_id"]
+                and str(device.organization_id) != filters["organization_id"]
+            ):
+                continue
+            if filters["group_id"] and str(device.group_id) != filters["group_id"]:
+                continue
+            if device_locations is not None and pk_str not in device_locations:
+                continue
+            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in device.name.lower():
+                continue
+            rows.append(
+                {
+                    "device_name": device.name,
+                    "device_pk": pk_str,
+                    "status": "skipped",
+                    "status_display": _("skipped"),
+                    "output": ", ".join(errors),
+                    "created": None,
+                    "is_skipped": True,
+                }
+            )
+        return rows
+
     def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
         extra_context = extra_context or {}
         obj = self.get_object(request, object_id)
         if obj:
-            Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
             commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
-            search_query = request.GET.get("q", "")
-            if search_query:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__name__icontains=search_query)
-            current_status = request.GET.get("status", "")
-            current_location = request.GET.get("location_id", "")
-            current_group = request.GET.get("group_id", "")
-            current_org = request.GET.get("organization_id", "")
-            if current_status and current_status != "skipped":
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(status=current_status)
-            if current_location:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(
-                    device__devicelocation__location_id=current_location
-                )
-            if current_group:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__group_id=current_group)
-            if current_org:
-                commands_qs = commands_qs.filter(device__organization_id=current_org)
-            rows = []
-            for cmd in commands_qs:
-                rows.append(
-                    {
-                        "device_name": cmd.device.name,
-                        "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
-                        "status": cmd.status,
-                        "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
-                        "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
-                        "created": cmd.created,
-                        "is_skipped": False,
-                    }
+            filters = self._get_active_filters(request)
+            commands_qs = self._apply_command_filters(commands_qs, filters)
+            rows = [
+                {
+                    "device_name": cmd.device.name,
+                    "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
+                    "status": cmd.status,
+                    "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
+                    "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
+                    "created": cmd.created,
+                    "is_skipped": False,
+                }
+                for cmd in commands_qs
+            ]
+            if obj.skipped_devices and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
+                rows.extend(self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters))
+            # Sort by status priority: success(0) > failed(1) > skipped(2), then alphabetically
+            rows.sort(
+                key=lambda r: (
+                    {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}.get(r["status"], 99),
+                    r["device_name"].lower(),
                 )
-            if obj.skipped_devices and current_status in ("", "skipped"):
-                pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-                device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
-                if current_location:
-                    DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
-                    device_locations = set(
-                        DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
-                            device_id__in=pks,
-                            location_id=current_location,
-                        ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
-                    )
-                else:
-                    device_locations = None
-                devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
-                for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-                    device = devices.get(pk_str)
-                    if not device:
-                        continue
-                    if current_org and str(device.organization_id) != current_org:
-                        continue
-                    if current_group and str(device.group_id) != current_group:
-                        continue
-                    if current_location and pk_str not in device_locations:
-                        continue
-                    name = device.name
-                    if search_query and search_query.lower() not in name.lower():
-                        continue
-                    rows.append(
-                        {
-                            "device_name": name,
-                            "device_pk": pk_str,
-                            "status": "skipped",
-                            "status_display": _("Skipped"),
-                            "output": ", ".join(errors),
-                            "created": None,
-                            "is_skipped": True,
-                        }
-                    )
-
-            def _sort_key(row):
-                priority = {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}
-                return (priority.get(row["status"], 99), row["device_name"].lower())
-
-            rows.sort(key=_sort_key)
+            )
             filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
                 request,
                 obj,
-                current_status,
-                current_location=current_location,
-                current_group=current_group,
-                current_org=current_org,
+                filters["status"],
+                current_location=filters["location_id"],
+                current_group=filters["group_id"],
+                current_org=filters["organization_id"],
             )
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
                 rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 1037f9ece..a01d094eb 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -792,7 +792,7 @@ class AbstractBatchCommand(ValidateOrgMixin, TimeStampedEditableModel):
         blank=True,
         null=True,
         default=dict,
-        verbose_name=_("Skipped devices"),
+        verbose_name=_("skipped devices"),
         help_text=_(
             "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for devices "
             "that were skipped during command creation."
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index cff9510f1..3e3a4c5b4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -129,6 +129,10 @@
   padding: 0;
 }
 
+#content-main {
+  margin: 20px;
+}
+
 /* Adjustments for list filters */
 #main #content .left-arrow {
   left: -1.125rem;
@@ -142,3 +146,535 @@
 #main #content .filters-top {
   margin-bottom: 0.5rem;
 }
+
+/* ================================================================
+   EXECUTION PAGE — Step 1 of 2
+   ================================================================ */
+
+.batch-command-execution {
+  max-width: 80rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Heading ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.batch-command-execution__heading {
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
+  font-size: 1.625rem;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  margin: 0 0 0.25rem;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__heading p {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.9375rem;
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+/* ── Stepper ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.stepper {
+  --stepper-bg: #ffffff;
+  --stepper-border: #e2e8f0;
+  --stepper-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05), 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);
+  --stepper-radius: 9999px;
+
+  --step-active-bg: #0d7377;
+  --step-active-text: #ffffff;
+  --step-active-highlight: #d5f1ea;
+  --step-active-tint: #f0faf6;
+  --step-active-underline: #0d7377;
+
+  --step-inactive-bg: #e8eaed;
+  --step-inactive-text: #9aa0a6;
+
+  --divider-color: #e2e8f0;
+  --arrow-color: #9aa0a6;
+  display: inline-flex;
+  align-items: stretch;
+  overflow: hidden;
+  margin-bottom: 1.75rem;
+}
+
+.stepper__step {
+  align-items: center;
+  cursor: pointer;
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  padding: 0.875rem 1.5rem 0.875rem 0;
+  position: relative;
+}
+
+/* Badge */
+.stepper__badge {
+  align-items: center;
+  border-radius: 50%;
+  display: flex;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  height: 2rem;
+  justify-content: center;
+  position: relative;
+  width: 2rem;
+  z-index: 1;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge {
+  background-color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  color: var(--step-active-text);
+}
+
+.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge::before {
+  background-color: var(--step-active-highlight);
+}
+
+.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge {
+  background-color: var(--step-inactive-bg);
+  color: var(--step-inactive-text);
+}
+
+.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge::before {
+  display: none;
+}
+
+/* Label */
+.stepper__label {
+  display: flex;
+  flex-direction: column;
+  gap: 0.2rem;
+  min-width: 0;
+}
+
+.stepper__label-text {
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  line-height: 1.2;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--active .stepper__label-text {
+  color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__label-text {
+  color: var(--step-inactive-text);
+  font-weight: 500;
+}
+
+/* Divider + arrow */
+.stepper__divider {
+  align-items: center;
+  display: flex;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  justify-content: center;
+  padding: 0.5rem 1rem 0.5rem 0;
+}
+
+.stepper__arrow {
+  color: var(--arrow-color);
+  display: block;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  height: 1rem;
+  width: 1rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Cards ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-card {
+  background: #ffffff;
+  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
+  border-radius: 1rem;
+  box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.04);
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
+  overflow: hidden;
+}
+
+.bce-card__header {
+  padding: 1.5rem 2rem 0;
+}
+
+.bce-card__header-row {
+  align-items: flex-start;
+  display: flex;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+}
+
+.bce-card__title {
+  font-size: 1.125rem;
+  font-weight: 600;
+  margin: 0 0 0.2rem;
+}
+
+.bce-card__subtitle {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.bce-card__muted {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+
+.bce-card__body {
+  padding: 1.25rem 2rem 2rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Form fields inside cards ───────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-field {
+  margin-bottom: 1.25rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field:last-child {
+  margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+
+.bce-field label,
+.bce-field > div > label {
+  display: block;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  margin-bottom: 0.4rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field select,
+.bce-field textarea,
+.bce-field input[type="text"],
+.bce-field input[type="number"],
+.bce-field input[type="password"] {
+  background: #ffffff;
+  border: 1px solid #d0d5dd;
+  border-radius: 0.5rem;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  max-width: 100%;
+  padding: 0.625rem 0.875rem;
+  transition:
+    border-color 0.15s ease,
+    box-shadow 0.15s ease;
+  width: 100%;
+}
+
+.bce-field select:focus,
+.bce-field textarea:focus,
+.bce-field input[type="text"]:focus,
+.bce-field input[type="number"]:focus,
+.bce-field input[type="password"]:focus {
+  border-color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  box-shadow: 0 0 0 3px rgba(13, 115, 119, 0.12);
+  outline: none;
+}
+
+.bce-field select[multiple] {
+  min-height: 8rem;
+  padding: 0.5rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field .help {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  margin-top: 0.35rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field .errors {
+  list-style: none;
+  margin: 0.25rem 0 0;
+  padding: 0;
+}
+
+.bce-field .errors li {
+  color: var(--error-fg);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+}
+
+.bce-field-grid {
+  display: grid;
+  gap: 1.25rem;
+  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;
+}
+
+/* ── Warning banner ─────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-warning {
+  align-items: flex-start;
+  background: #fffbeb;
+  border: 1px solid #fde68a;
+  border-radius: 0.75rem;
+  color: #92400e;
+  display: flex;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  margin: 0 2rem 1.5rem;
+  padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
+}
+
+.bce-warning svg {
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  height: 1.25rem;
+  margin-top: 0.1rem;
+  width: 1.25rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Device summary banner ──────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-device-summary {
+  align-items: center;
+  background: #eff6ff;
+  border: 1px solid #bfdbfe;
+  border-radius: 0.75rem;
+  color: #1e40af;
+  display: flex;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+  margin-top: 1.5rem;
+  padding: 0.875rem 1.25rem;
+}
+
+.bce-device-summary__live {
+  align-items: center;
+  color: #6b7280;
+  display: flex;
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  font-weight: 400;
+  gap: 0.4rem;
+}
+
+.bce-device-summary__dot {
+  background: #22c55e;
+  border-radius: 50%;
+  display: inline-block;
+  height: 6px;
+  width: 6px;
+}
+
+/* ── Submit row ──────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.batch-command-execution__actions {
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  justify-content: flex-end;
+  margin-top: 1.5rem;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__actions .cancel-link {
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__actions button[disabled] {
+  cursor: not-allowed;
+  opacity: 0.5;
+}
+
+.batch-command-execution__form > .help {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  margin: 0.75rem 0 0;
+  text-align: right;
+}
+
+/* ================================================================
+   CONFIRM / REVIEW PAGE — Step 2 of 2
+   ================================================================ */
+
+/* ── Completed stepper step ─────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge {
+  background-color: #059669;
+  color: #ffffff;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge::before {
+  display: none;
+}
+
+.stepper__check {
+  display: block;
+  height: 1rem;
+  width: 1rem;
+}
+
+.stepper__step--completed .stepper__label-text {
+  color: #059669;
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+/* ── Edit link ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bce-card__edit-link {
+  align-items: center;
+  color: var(--step-active-bg);
+  display: inline-flex;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  gap: 0.35rem;
+  text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+.bce-card__edit-link:hover {
+  text-decoration: underline;
+}
+
+.bce-card__edit-link svg {
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+}
+
+/* ── Summary definition list ────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bcr-summary {
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__row {
+  align-items: baseline;
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 1rem;
+  padding: 0.75rem 0;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__row + .bcr-summary__row {
+  border-top: 1px solid #f1f5f9;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__label {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 400;
+  min-width: 8rem;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__value {
+  font-size: 0.875rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  margin: 0;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__value strong {
+  font-weight: 700;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__value--warning {
+  color: #d97706;
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__badge {
+  background: #f1f5f9;
+  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
+  border-radius: 0.375rem;
+  display: inline-block;
+  font-family: ui-monospace, SFMono-Regular, "SF Mono", Menlo, Consolas, monospace;
+  font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  font-weight: 500;
+  padding: 0.15rem 0.5rem;
+}
+
+.bcr-summary__desc {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-weight: 400;
+  margin-left: 0.35rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Affected devices placeholder ───────────────────────────── */
+
+.bcr-devices-placeholder {
+  min-height: 6rem;
+}
+
+/* ── Sticky action bar ──────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+.bcr-action-bar {
+  align-items: center;
+  background: #ffffff;
+  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
+  border-radius: 0.75rem;
+  bottom: 1.5rem;
+  box-shadow:
+    0 4px 6px -1px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07),
+    0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 1.5rem;
+  justify-content: space-between;
+  margin-top: 1.5rem;
+  padding: 1rem 1.5rem;
+  position: sticky;
+  z-index: 10;
+}
+
+.bcr-action-bar__summary {
+  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
+  font-size: 0.9375rem;
+}
+
+.bcr-action-bar__summary strong {
+  color: var(--body-fg);
+  font-weight: 600;
+}
+
+.bcr-action-bar__actions {
+  align-items: center;
+  display: flex;
+  gap: 0.75rem;
+  flex-shrink: 0;
+}
+
+/* ── Responsive ─────────────────────────────────────────── */
+
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+  .batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
+    font-size: 1.375rem;
+  }
+
+  .bce-card__header {
+    padding: 1.25rem 1.25rem 0;
+  }
+
+  .bce-card__body {
+    padding: 1rem 1.25rem 1.5rem;
+  }
+
+  .bce-field-grid {
+    grid-template-columns: 1fr;
+  }
+
+  .stepper {
+    max-width: 100%;
+  }
+
+  .stepper__step {
+    padding: 0.75rem 1rem 0.75rem 0;
+  }
+
+  .stepper__label-text {
+    font-size: 0.8125rem;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-summary__row {
+    flex-direction: column;
+    gap: 0.25rem;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-summary__label {
+    min-width: 0;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-action-bar {
+    flex-direction: column;
+    gap: 1rem;
+    padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-action-bar__actions {
+    width: 100%;
+  }
+
+  .bcr-action-bar__actions .button {
+    flex: 1;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b832a5009
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+django.jQuery(function ($) {
+  "use strict";
+
+  var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
+  var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+
+  var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
+  if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+
+  var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
+  var $container = $("#command-input-container");
+  var fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
+  var $hiddenInput;
+
+  function ensureHiddenInput() {
+    $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
+    if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
+      $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
+      $form.append($hiddenInput);
+    }
+  }
+
+  function clearContainer() {
+    $container.empty();
+  }
+
+  function syncCustom() {
+    var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
+    val = $.trim(val);
+    $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
+  }
+
+  function syncPassword() {
+    var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
+    var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
+    $hiddenInput.val(
+      pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
+    );
+  }
+
+  function buildCustomField() {
+    var $wrapper = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
+    $wrapper.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-command">Command</label>');
+    $wrapper.append(
+      '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
+        fieldName +
+        '" placeholder="e.g. uptime" class="vTextField">',
+    );
+    $wrapper.append(
+      '<div class="help">Enter the shell command to run on all devices</div>',
+    );
+    $container.append($wrapper);
+  }
+
+  function buildChangePasswordField() {
+    var $grid = $('<div class="bce-field-grid"></div>');
+
+    var $pwField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
+    $pwField.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-password">New password</label>');
+    $pwField.append(
+      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+    );
+    $grid.append($pwField);
+
+    var $cpField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
+    $cpField.append(
+      '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password">Confirm password</label>',
+    );
+    $cpField.append(
+      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+    );
+    $grid.append($cpField);
+
+    $container.append($grid);
+    $container.append(
+      '<div class="bce-field"><div class="help">Password must be at least 6 characters long</div></div>',
+    );
+  }
+
+  function onTypeChange() {
+    var selected = $typeSelect.val();
+    clearContainer();
+
+    if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+      buildCustomField();
+      syncCustom();
+    } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+      buildChangePasswordField();
+      syncPassword();
+    } else {
+      $hiddenInput.val("");
+    }
+  }
+
+  ensureHiddenInput();
+  $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
+  $container.on(
+    "input",
+    "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
+    syncPassword,
+  );
+  $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
+  onTypeChange();
+
+  var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
+  if ($reviewBtn.length) {
+    $typeSelect.on("change", function () {
+      $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$(this).val());
+    });
+    $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$typeSelect.val());
+
+    $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
+      var type = $typeSelect.val();
+      if (!type) return;
+
+      var params = new URLSearchParams();
+      params.append("type", type);
+
+      var inputVal = $hiddenInput.val();
+      if (inputVal) {
+        params.append("input", inputVal);
+      }
+
+      var label = $("#id_label").val();
+      if (label) {
+        params.append("label", label);
+      }
+
+      var notes = $("#id_notes").val();
+      if (notes) {
+        params.append("notes", notes);
+      }
+
+      var org = $("#id_organization").val();
+      if (org) {
+        params.append("organization", org);
+      }
+
+      var group = $("#id_group").val();
+      if (group) {
+        params.append("group", group);
+      }
+
+      var location = $("#id_location").val();
+      if (location) {
+        params.append("location", location);
+      }
+
+      $("#id_devices option:selected").each(function () {
+        params.append("devices", $(this).val());
+      });
+
+      var confirmUrl = window.location.href.replace("execute/", "confirm/");
+      window.location.href = confirmUrl.split("?")[0] + "?" + params.toString();
+    });
+  }
+});
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a6975ab80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+{% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
+{% load i18n admin_urls static %}
+
+{% block extrahead %}
+{{ block.super }}
+{{ media }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+
+{% block breadcrumbs %}
+<div class="breadcrumbs">
+  <a href="{% url 'admin:index' %}">{% trans 'Home' %}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=opts.app_label %}">{{ opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; {% trans 'Review mass command' %}
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content %}
+<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
+  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
+    <h1>{% trans 'Review mass command' %}</h1>
+    <p>{% trans 'Confirm what will run before execution.' %}</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--completed">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">
+        <svg class="stepper__check" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+          <path d="M3.5 8.5L6.5 11.5L12.5 5.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+        </svg>
+      </span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+      </svg>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+  </nav>
+
+  {# ── Summary card ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bce-card">
+    <div class="bce-card__header">
+      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+        <div>
+          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
+        </div>
+        <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="bce-card__edit-link">
+          <svg viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="14" height="14">
+            <path d="M10.5 3.5L12.5 5.5L5.5 12.5H3.5V10.5L10.5 3.5Z" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+          </svg>
+          {% trans 'Edit' %}
+        </a>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="bce-card__body">
+      <dl class="bcr-summary">
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Command' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
+            <span class="bcr-summary__badge">{{ command_type_display }}</span>
+            {% if command_description %}<span class="bcr-summary__desc">&mdash; {{ command_description }}</span>{% endif %}
+          </dd>
+        </div>
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Targets' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ targets_display }}</dd>
+        </div>
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will run on' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
+            <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
+          </dd>
+        </div>
+        {% if skipped_devices_count %}
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will skip' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value bcr-summary__value--warning">
+            {{ skipped_devices_count }} {% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
+          </dd>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
+        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
+          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</dt>
+          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ request.user }}</dd>
+        </div>
+      </dl>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  {% if skipped_devices_count %}
+  {# ── Warning banner ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bce-warning">
+    <svg viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+      <path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M8.257 3.099c.765-1.36 2.722-1.36 3.486 0l5.58 9.92c.75 1.334-.213 2.98-1.742 2.98H4.42c-1.53 0-2.493-1.646-1.743-2.98l5.58-9.92zM11 13a1 1 0 10-2 0 1 1 0 002 0zm-1-8a1 1 0 00-1 1v3a1 1 0 002 0V6a1 1 0 00-1-1z" clip-rule="evenodd"/>
+    </svg>
+    <div>
+      <strong>{% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} device will be skipped{% plural %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} devices will be skipped{% endblocktrans %}</strong>
+      <p>{% trans 'These devices do not match the selected filters or are not available.' %}</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+
+  {# ── Affected devices ──────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bce-card">
+    <div class="bce-card__header">
+      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+        <div>
+          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
+          <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Devices that will receive this command' %}</p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="bce-card__body">
+      <div class="bcr-devices-placeholder"></div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  {# ── Sticky action bar ─────────────────────────────────── #}
+  <div class="bcr-action-bar">
+    <div class="bcr-action-bar__summary">
+      {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
+      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> device
+      {% plural %}
+      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> devices
+      {% endblocktrans %}
+    </div>
+    <div class="bcr-action-bar__actions">
+      <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="button">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
+      <button type="button" class="button default">
+        {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
+        Execute on {{ device_count }} device
+        {% plural %}
+        Execute on {{ device_count }} devices
+        {% endblocktrans %}
+      </button>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..851311e37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -0,0 +1,159 @@
+{% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
+{% load i18n admin_urls static %}
+
+{% block extrahead %}
+{{ block.super }}
+{{ media }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
+<script src="{% static 'connection/js/execute-command.js' %}"></script>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} execute-batch-command{% endblock %}
+
+{% block breadcrumbs %}
+<div class="breadcrumbs">
+  <a href="{% url 'admin:index' %}">{% trans 'Home' %}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=opts.app_label %}">{{ opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; {% trans 'Execute mass command' %}
+</div>
+{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
+
+{% block content %}
+<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
+  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
+    <h1>{% trans 'Execute mass command' %}</h1>
+    <p>{% trans 'Run a shell command across many devices at once' %}</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+      </svg>
+    </div>
+    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
+      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label">
+        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      </span>
+    </div>
+  </nav>
+
+  <form class="batch-command-execution__form" novalidate>
+
+    {# ── Command card ─────────────────────────────────── #}
+    <div class="bce-card">
+      <div class="bce-card__header">
+        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+          <div>
+            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Command' %}</h2>
+            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'What to run on the selected devices' %}</p>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="bce-card__body">
+        {% with field=form.type %}
+        <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+          {{ field.errors }}
+          <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+          {{ field }}
+          {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+        </div>
+        {% endwith %}
+
+        <div id="command-input-container"></div>
+
+        <div class="bce-field-grid">
+          {% with field=form.label %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+
+          {% with field=form.notes %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+
+    {# ── Targets card ──────────────────────────────────── #}
+    <div class="bce-card">
+      <div class="bce-card__header">
+        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
+          <div>
+            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Targets' %}</h2>
+            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Which devices receive this command' %}</p>
+          </div>
+          <span class="bce-card__muted">{% trans 'Filters combine with AND' %}</span>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <div class="bce-card__body">
+        <div class="bce-field-grid">
+          {% with field=form.organization %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+
+          {% with field=form.location %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+
+          {% with field=form.group %}
+          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+            {{ field.errors }}
+            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
+            {{ field }}
+            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+          </div>
+          {% endwith %}
+        </div>
+
+        <div class="bce-device-summary">
+          <span>{% trans '12 devices match these filters' %}</span>
+          <span class="bce-device-summary__live">
+            <span class="bce-device-summary__dot"></span>
+            {% trans 'Updated live' %}
+          </span>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </div>
+
+    {# ── Hidden submit (kept for form validation) ──────── #}
+    <div class="submit-row batch-command-execution__actions">
+      <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans 'Cancel' %}</a>
+      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">
+        {% trans 'Review command' %}
+      </button>
+    </div>
+  </form>
+</div>
+{% endblock %}

From c8442c1c1dd2f57cd516e2f9738a39b034cd1a67 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Sun, 9 Aug 2026 23:25:29 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 06/13] [fix] Test with monitoring

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 484 ++++++++++++++----
 .../connection/api/serializers.py             |  13 +
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  79 ++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  99 ++--
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  90 ++++
 .../connection/channels/routing.py            |   6 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py    |   8 +
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 459 ++---------------
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 357 +++++++++++++
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 460 ++++++++++++-----
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  20 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        | 253 ++++-----
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        | 249 +++++----
 13 files changed, 1625 insertions(+), 952 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 47f42d760..9a6d70cd0 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,13 +1,15 @@
 from datetime import timedelta
 from types import SimpleNamespace
+from uuid import uuid4
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
-from django.contrib import admin
-from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied
+from django.contrib import admin, messages
+from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
+from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
 from django.urls import path, resolve
 from django.utils.html import format_html, format_html_join
@@ -20,6 +22,7 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
+from . import settings as app_settings
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
@@ -43,13 +46,16 @@ class Meta:
 
 
 class BatchCommandExecutionForm(forms.ModelForm):
-    """Form layout for the mass command execution workflow.
+    """Collects the mass command details on the first step of the workflow.
 
-    The execution and confirmation behavior is intentionally added separately.
-    Keeping the form here lets the custom admin view use the same model fields
-    and tenant-scoped choices as the eventual workflow.
+    This form is the only place where the submitted values are validated.
+    Narrowing the querysets in ``__init__`` controls what the widgets offer,
+    it does not control what is accepted, so ``clean()`` re-checks the
+    submitted values against the organizations the user actually manages.
     """
 
+    required_css_class = "required"
+
     class Meta:
         model = BatchCommand
         fields = [
@@ -60,24 +66,101 @@ class Meta:
             "input",
             "group",
             "location",
-            "devices",
         ]
         widgets = {
             "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
-            "input": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 5}),
-            "devices": forms.SelectMultiple(attrs={"size": 8}),
+            # filled in by execute-command.js, which renders the fields
+            # relevant to the selected command type
+            "input": forms.HiddenInput(),
+        }
+
+    class Media:
+        # select2 must be loaded before jquery.init.js, which calls
+        # jQuery.noConflict(): same ordering as admin.widgets.AutocompleteMixin
+        js = [
+            "admin/js/vendor/jquery/jquery.min.js",
+            "admin/js/vendor/select2/select2.full.min.js",
+            "admin/js/jquery.init.js",
+            "connection/js/execute-command.js",
+        ]
+        css = {
+            "screen": [
+                "admin/css/vendor/select2/select2.min.css",
+                "admin/css/autocomplete.css",
+            ]
         }
 
     def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
         super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
+        self.request = request
         if request is None or request.user.is_superuser:
             return
         organization_ids = request.user.organizations_managed
-        for field_name in ("organization", "group", "location", "devices"):
+        self.fields["organization"].queryset = self.fields[
+            "organization"
+        ].queryset.filter(id__in=organization_ids)
+        for field_name in ("group", "location"):
             self.fields[field_name].queryset = self.fields[field_name].queryset.filter(
                 organization_id__in=organization_ids
             )
 
+    def clean(self):
+        cleaned_data = super().clean()
+        if self.request is None or self.request.user.is_superuser:
+            return cleaned_data
+        organization = cleaned_data.get("organization")
+        group = cleaned_data.get("group")
+        location = cleaned_data.get("location")
+        # a batch without any target would run on every device of the
+        # deployment, which only superusers are allowed to do
+        if not any([organization, group, location]):
+            raise ValidationError(
+                _(
+                    "Please select at least one of: organization, device group,"
+                    " or location."
+                )
+            )
+        # "organizations_managed" is a list of organization UUIDs as strings
+        organization_ids = self.request.user.organizations_managed
+        related_organizations = (
+            ("organization", organization.pk if organization else None),
+            ("group", group.organization_id if group else None),
+            ("location", location.organization_id if location else None),
+        )
+        for field_name, organization_id in related_organizations:
+            if organization_id is None:
+                continue
+            if str(organization_id) not in organization_ids:
+                self.add_error(field_name, _("Select a valid choice."))
+        return cleaned_data
+
+    def to_session(self):
+        """Returns the cleaned values as JSON serializable primitives.
+
+        The session uses the JSON serializer, so model instances and UUIDs
+        cannot be stored as they are.
+        """
+
+        def _pk(value):
+            return str(value.pk) if value else None
+
+        return {
+            # Namespaces the device selection the confirm page keeps in
+            # sessionStorage, which lives as long as the browser tab: without
+            # it a wizard would inherit the devices unselected by a previous
+            # one. It has to be issued here rather than by the browser,
+            # because the session is shared between tabs and sessionStorage
+            # is not. Not a security token: it only scopes a storage key.
+            "token": uuid4().hex,
+            "type": self.cleaned_data["type"],
+            "label": self.cleaned_data["label"],
+            "notes": self.cleaned_data.get("notes") or "",
+            "input": self.cleaned_data.get("input"),
+            "organization_id": _pk(self.cleaned_data.get("organization")),
+            "group_id": _pk(self.cleaned_data.get("group")),
+            "location_id": _pk(self.cleaned_data.get("location")),
+        }
+
 
 @admin.register(Credentials)
 class CredentialsAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, TimeReadonlyAdminMixin, admin.ModelAdmin):
@@ -261,9 +344,74 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 DeviceAdmin.add_reversion_following(follow=["deviceconnection_set"])
 
 
+class BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin:
+    """Turns the device changelist into the selection table of the confirm page.
+
+    Applied on top of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for Device rather
+    than on top of this module's DeviceAdmin, because other modules replace
+    that registration: openwisp-monitoring unregisters Device and registers
+    its own subclass, which adds the health status column. Building on the
+    registered class means those columns appear here too, along with the
+    select_related and the media they need, without this module knowing
+    which ones exist. See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_admin().
+
+    Filters and search are removed on purpose: the devices are already
+    determined by the targets chosen on the execute page, this table only
+    allows excluding individual devices from that set. Emptying
+    ``list_filter`` and ``search_fields`` is enough for the stock changelist
+    template to render neither, so it can be reused as it is.
+    """
+
+    # DeviceAdmin leaves this as an empty tuple, which ModelAdmin reads as
+    # "link the first column": that would wrap the checkbox in an <a> and
+    # navigate to the device instead of ticking it. Name is the column the
+    # device changelist links anyway.
+    list_display_links = ["name"]
+    list_filter = []
+    search_fields = []
+    actions = None
+    list_per_page = 20
+    ordering = ["name"]
+    change_list_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
+    # django-import-export replaces change_list_template on the instance with
+    # a template of its own, which redefines the object-tools block and so
+    # brings back the "Import", "Export" and "Add device" buttons this page
+    # suppresses. Setting this to None is its documented way of opting out:
+    # ImportExportMixinBase.init_change_list_template() then falls back to
+    # the template set above. Unused when import-export is not installed.
+    import_export_change_list_template = None
+
+    def __init__(self, model, admin_site, devices=None):
+        super().__init__(model, admin_site)
+        self.devices = devices
+
+    def get_list_display(self, request):
+        # resolved per request instead of being a class attribute: the
+        # attribute would be a snapshot taken when this module is imported,
+        # which can be before another module has replaced the registration
+        return ["select_device"] + list(super().get_list_display(request))
+
+    def get_queryset(self, request):
+        # MultitenantAdminMixin.get_queryset() scopes this to the
+        # organizations managed by the user, independently of list_filter
+        return super().get_queryset(request).filter(pk__in=self.devices)
+
+    @admin.display(description="")
+    def select_device(self, obj):
+        # deliberately without a "name": these checkboxes are never
+        # submitted, execute-command.js mirrors them into the hidden
+        # "excluded" field of the form holding the execute button
+        return format_html(
+            '<input type="checkbox" class="bc-select-device" value="{}" checked>',
+            obj.pk,
+        )
+
+
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     execute_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html"
+    # rendered through BatchCommandDeviceAdmin.change_list_template
     confirm_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
+    session_key = "batch_command_wizard"
     list_display = [
         "label",
         "organization_display",
@@ -292,7 +440,7 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
-    device_commands_per_page = 20
+    device_commands_per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
     exclude = ("devices",)
     fields = [
         "organization_display",
@@ -345,92 +493,205 @@ def get_urls(self):
             ),
         ] + super().get_urls()
 
-    def execute_command_view(self, request):
-        """Render the first step of the mass command workflow.
-
-        This page only collects command details for now. The preview and
-        confirmation POST flow will be added in a later change.
-        """
+    def _check_add_permission(self, request):
         permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
         if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
             raise PermissionDenied
-        form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
+
+    def execute_command_view(self, request):
+        """First step of the mass command workflow: collect the details.
+
+        A valid submission is stored in the session and the user is
+        redirected to the confirm page (Post/Redirect/Get), so that the
+        device table there can be paginated with ordinary GET requests: a
+        pagination link cannot carry the contents of a form.
+        """
+        self._check_add_permission(request)
+        if request.method == "POST":
+            form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request.POST, request=request)
+            if form.is_valid():
+                request.session[self.session_key] = form.to_session()
+                return redirect(
+                    f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
+                )
+        else:
+            form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
         context = {
             **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
             "title": _("Execute mass command"),
-            "opts": self.model._meta,
+            "opts": self.opts,
             "form": form,
-            "media": self.media + form.media,
+            # not combined with self.media: ModelAdmin.media loads
+            # jquery.init.js before select2, the opposite of what select2
+            # needs (see BatchCommandExecutionForm.Media)
+            "media": form.media,
             "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
         }
         return TemplateResponse(request, self.execute_command_template, context)
 
     def confirm_command_view(self, request):
-        """Render the second step of the mass command workflow.
+        """Second step: review the targeted devices and dispatch the command.
 
-        Displays a summary of the command to be executed and provides
-        an Execute button to create the BatchCommand.
+        Dispatching is decided by the HTTP method alone, never by looking
+        for a field in the request body.
         """
-        permission = f"{self.opts.app_label}.add_{self.opts.model_name}"
-        if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
-            raise PermissionDenied
-        command_type = request.GET.get("type", "")
-        label = request.GET.get("label", "")
-        notes = request.GET.get("notes", "")
-        organization_id = request.GET.get("organization", "")
-        group_id = request.GET.get("group", "")
-        location_id = request.GET.get("location", "")
-        device_ids = request.GET.getlist("devices")
-
-        command_type_display = command_type
-        command_description = ""
-        for choice_value, choice_label in BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices:
-            if choice_value == command_type:
-                command_type_display = choice_label
-                break
-
-        targets_parts = []
-        if organization_id:
-            Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
-            try:
-                org = Organization.objects.get(pk=organization_id)
-                targets_parts.append(str(org))
-            except Organization.DoesNotExist:
-                pass
-        if group_id:
-            DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
-            try:
-                group = DeviceGroup.objects.get(pk=group_id)
-                targets_parts.append(str(group))
-            except DeviceGroup.DoesNotExist:
-                pass
-        if location_id:
-            Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
-            try:
-                location = Location.objects.get(pk=location_id)
-                targets_parts.append(str(location))
-            except Location.DoesNotExist:
-                pass
-        targets_display = (
-            ", ".join(targets_parts) if targets_parts else _("All devices")
+        self._check_add_permission(request)
+        if request.method == "POST":
+            return self._execute_batch_command(request)
+        wizard = request.session.get(self.session_key)
+        if not wizard:
+            return self._restart(request)
+        devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        device_admin = self.get_device_admin(devices)
+        # changelist_view() assembles the whole changelist context (cl,
+        # media, pagination) and renders the change_list_template of the
+        # mixin, which is the confirm page extending the stock changelist
+        # template
+        return device_admin.changelist_view(
+            request, extra_context=self._confirm_context(request, wizard, devices)
         )
 
-        device_count = len(device_ids) if device_ids else 0
-        skipped_devices_count = 0
+    def get_device_admin(self, devices):
+        """Builds the ModelAdmin rendering the device table of the confirm page.
+
+        Composed with the ModelAdmin currently registered for Device instead
+        of a named class, so that the table shows the columns of the device
+        changelist as it actually is. Modules layered on top of the
+        controller replace that registration rather than extending the class
+        this module imports: openwisp-monitoring, for one, unregisters Device
+        and registers a subclass adding the health status column.
+
+        Resolved here, per request, rather than at import time: every app has
+        finished loading by now, so the registration is final. Nothing is
+        imported from those modules and none of them needs to know about this
+        page; with none of them installed this returns the controller's own
+        Device admin and the table is unchanged.
+        """
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        # the mixin comes first so that its attributes win over the
+        # registered admin's
+        device_admin_class = type(
+            "BatchCommandDeviceAdmin",
+            (BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin, registered),
+            {},
+        )
+        return device_admin_class(Device, self.admin_site, devices=devices)
 
-        context = {
-            **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
+    def get_device_changelist_template(self):
+        """The template the registered Device admin renders its changelist with.
+
+        The confirm page extends it instead of the stock changelist template,
+        because that is where other modules load the assets their columns
+        need: openwisp-monitoring pulls in the stylesheet drawing the health
+        status accordion, and the script expanding it, from there.
+
+        Read from the class rather than from an instance, since
+        django-import-export rewrites the attribute on the instance.
+        """
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        return getattr(registered, "change_list_template", None) or (
+            "admin/change_list.html"
+        )
+
+    def _restart(self, request):
+        """Sends the user back to step one when there is no wizard to show."""
+        messages.warning(
+            request, _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue.")
+        )
+        return redirect(f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_execute")
+
+    def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
+        """Devices matched by the organization, group and location chosen.
+
+        ``distinct()`` and an explicit ordering are required because this
+        queryset is paginated: the devicelocation join can return the same
+        device more than once, and page boundaries are undefined without an
+        ordering.
+        """
+        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+        qs = Device.objects.all()
+        if not request.user.is_superuser:
+            qs = qs.filter(organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed)
+        if wizard.get("organization_id"):
+            qs = qs.filter(organization_id=wizard["organization_id"])
+        if wizard.get("group_id"):
+            qs = qs.filter(group_id=wizard["group_id"])
+        if wizard.get("location_id"):
+            qs = qs.filter(devicelocation__location_id=wizard["location_id"])
+        return qs.distinct().order_by("name")
+
+    def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
+        targets = []
+        for app_label, model_name, key in (
+            ("openwisp_users", "Organization", "organization_id"),
+            ("config", "DeviceGroup", "group_id"),
+            ("geo", "Location", "location_id"),
+        ):
+            if not wizard.get(key):
+                continue
+            model = swapper.load_model(app_label, model_name)
+            target = model.objects.filter(pk=wizard[key]).first()
+            if target:
+                targets.append(str(target))
+        command_types = dict(BatchCommand._meta.get_field("type").choices)
+        return {
             "title": _("Review mass command"),
-            "opts": self.model._meta,
-            "command_type_display": command_type_display,
-            "command_description": command_description,
-            "targets_display": targets_display,
-            "device_count": device_count,
-            "skipped_devices_count": skipped_devices_count,
-            "media": self.media,
+            "batch_opts": self.opts,
+            # the template this page extends, see get_device_changelist_template()
+            "device_changelist_template": self.get_device_changelist_template(),
+            "wizard": wizard,
+            "command_type_display": command_types.get(wizard["type"], wizard["type"]),
+            "command_description": (wizard.get("input") or {}).get("command", ""),
+            "targets_display": ", ".join(targets) if targets else _("All devices"),
+            "device_count": devices.count(),
             "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
         }
-        return TemplateResponse(request, self.confirm_command_template, context)
+
+    def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
+        """Applies the device selection and dispatches the mass command.
+
+        The wizard is popped from the session before anything else happens,
+        so that a double submit cannot create the batch twice: the second
+        request finds nothing and is sent back to step one.
+        """
+        wizard = request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
+        if not wizard:
+            return self._restart(request)
+        devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        # The confirm page only lists the devices matched on the execute
+        # page, so the selection can only ever remove from that set: the
+        # browser never supplies a device to add.
+        excluded = self._get_pk_list(request.POST, "excluded")
+        selection = devices.exclude(pk__in=excluded)
+        kwargs = {
+            "type": wizard["type"],
+            "label": wizard["label"],
+            "input": wizard.get("input"),
+            "notes": wizard.get("notes") or "",
+            "organization_id": wizard.get("organization_id"),
+            "group_id": wizard.get("group_id"),
+            "location_id": wizard.get("location_id"),
+            "devices": list(selection.distinct()),
+        }
+        try:
+            batch = BatchCommand.execute(**kwargs)
+        except ValidationError as error:
+            # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
+            request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
+            messages.error(request, error.messages[0])
+            return redirect(
+                f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
+            )
+        messages.success(request, _("Mass command executed successfully."))
+        return redirect(
+            f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_change", batch.pk
+        )
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _get_pk_list(source, name):
+        return [pk for pk in source.get(name, "").split(",") if pk]
 
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
@@ -596,15 +857,48 @@ def _build_related_filter(self, title, param_name, current_value, qs, make_choic
             return None
         return SimpleNamespace(title=title, choices=choices)
 
-    def _paginate_commands(self, items, page_param, per_page=None):
+    @staticmethod
+    def _command_row(command):
+        return {
+            "device_name": command.device.name,
+            "device_pk": command.device.pk,
+            "status": command.status,
+            "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
+            "output": (command.output or "").lstrip(),
+            "created": command.created,
+            "is_skipped": False,
+        }
+
+    def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=None):
+        """Returns one page of rows without loading the whole batch in memory.
+
+        Commands keep the ordering of ``AbstractCommand.Meta`` ("created"),
+        which is the order they were fanned out in: the newest one is always
+        last. That is what lets the change page append results live without
+        re-fetching, because a new result always belongs on the last page.
+
+        Skipped devices are not Command rows, they are entries of the
+        ``skipped_devices`` field, so they are kept as a (normally short)
+        list and follow the commands.
+        """
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
-        paginator = Paginator(list(items), per_page)
-        page_number = page_param or 1
+        commands_count = commands_qs.count()
+        total = commands_count + len(skipped_rows)
+        paginator = Paginator(range(total), per_page)
         try:
-            page_obj = paginator.page(page_number)
+            page_obj = paginator.page(page_param or 1)
         except (PageNotAnInteger, EmptyPage):
             page_obj = paginator.page(1)
-        return page_obj, paginator, page_obj.object_list
+        start = (page_obj.number - 1) * per_page
+        end = start + per_page
+        commands_end = min(end, commands_count)
+        rows = [
+            self._command_row(command) for command in commands_qs[start:commands_end]
+        ]
+        skipped_start = max(0, start - commands_count)
+        skipped_end = max(0, end - commands_count)
+        rows += skipped_rows[skipped_start:skipped_end]
+        return page_obj, paginator, rows
 
     def _get_active_filters(self, request):
         return {
@@ -681,26 +975,11 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
             commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
             filters = self._get_active_filters(request)
             commands_qs = self._apply_command_filters(commands_qs, filters)
-            rows = [
-                {
-                    "device_name": cmd.device.name,
-                    "device_pk": cmd.device.pk,
-                    "status": cmd.status,
-                    "status_display": cmd.get_status_display(),
-                    "output": (cmd.output or "").lstrip(),
-                    "created": cmd.created,
-                    "is_skipped": False,
-                }
-                for cmd in commands_qs
-            ]
+            skipped_rows = []
             if obj.skipped_devices and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
-                rows.extend(self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters))
-            # Sort by status priority: success(0) > failed(1) > skipped(2), then alphabetically
-            rows.sort(
-                key=lambda r: (
-                    {"success": 0, "failed": 1, "skipped": 2}.get(r["status"], 99),
-                    r["device_name"].lower(),
-                )
+                skipped_rows = self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters)
+            page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
+                commands_qs, skipped_rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
             filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
                 request,
@@ -710,9 +989,6 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                 current_group=filters["group_id"],
                 current_org=filters["organization_id"],
             )
-            page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
-                rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
-            )
             extra_context.update(
                 {
                     "commands": commands,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
index e776def03..37c4280cd 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
@@ -15,6 +15,19 @@
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
+def command_to_batch_payload(command):
+    """Serialize a Command into the payload used for batch-command websocket messages.
+
+    Shared by the batch-command signal receiver and the batch-command consumer so
+    real-time messages and the initial ``request_current_state`` reply use the same
+    shape (including the extra fields the admin table needs to render a row).
+    """
+    data = CommandSerializer(command).data
+    data["device_name"] = command.device.name
+    data["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
+    return data
+
+
 class ValidatedDeviceFieldSerializer(ValidatedModelSerializer):
     def validate(self, data):
         # Add "device_id" to the data for validation
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index f67e326d0..1abc5cca9 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -8,9 +8,10 @@
 from openwisp_notifications.types import register_notification_type
 from swapper import get_model_name, load_model
 
-from openwisp_utils.admin_theme.menu import register_menu_subitem
+from openwisp_utils.admin_theme.menu import register_menu_group, register_menu_subitem
 
 from ..config.signals import config_deactivating, config_modified
+from .settings import BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
 from .signals import is_working_changed
 
 
@@ -37,6 +38,7 @@ def ready(self):
         Config = load_model("config", "Config")
         Credentials = load_model("connection", "Credentials")
         Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+        BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
         config_modified.connect(
             self.config_modified_receiver, dispatch_uid="connection.update_config"
@@ -61,6 +63,11 @@ def ready(self):
             sender=Command,
             dispatch_uid="command_save_handler",
         )
+        post_save.connect(
+            self.batch_command_save_receiver,
+            sender=BatchCommand,
+            dispatch_uid="batch_command_save_handler",
+        )
 
     @classmethod
     def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
@@ -68,16 +75,53 @@ def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
 
     @classmethod
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
-        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
+        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
 
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
-        if created:
-            # Trigger websocket message only when command status is updated
-            return
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
+        if not created:
+            # Trigger websocket message only when command status is updated
+            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
+                f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
+                {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
+            )
+        if instance.batch_command_id:
+            batch_data = command_to_batch_payload(instance)
+            # Authoritative counts, recomputed fresh on every send rather than
+            # relying on the client to increment a running total (a missed
+            # or duplicate message would otherwise desync it permanently).
+            batch = instance.batch_command
+            affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
+            batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+            # the table also paginates the skipped devices, which are not
+            # Command rows: without them the client computes too few pages
+            # and the last one becomes unreachable
+            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
+                batch.skipped_devices or {}
+            )
+            if created:
+                # Results are ordered by creation, so a new one is always the
+                # last: its index is the count minus one. Only new results
+                # carry a page, a status change is not a new row and must not
+                # be drawn anywhere it is not already displayed.
+                batch_data["page"] = (
+                    affected_devices - 1
+                ) // BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE + 1
+            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
+                f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}",
+                {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": batch_data},
+            )
+
+    @classmethod
+    def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
+        from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
+
+        channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
+        serialized_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
+        serialized_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
         async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
-            f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
-            {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
+            f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
+            {"type": "send.update", "model": "BatchCommand", "data": serialized_data},
         )
 
     @classmethod
@@ -188,3 +232,24 @@ def register_menu_groups(self):
                 "icon": "ow-access-credential",
             },
         )
+        register_menu_group(
+            position=35,
+            config={
+                "label": _("Network Operations"),
+                "icon": "ow-build",
+                "items": {
+                    1: {
+                        "label": _("Mass command admin"),
+                        "model": get_model_name("connection", "BatchCommand"),
+                        "name": "changelist",
+                        "icon": "ow-mass-upgrade",
+                    },
+                    2: {
+                        "label": _("Mass command execute"),
+                        "model": get_model_name("connection", "BatchCommand"),
+                        "name": "execute",
+                        "icon": "ow-mass-upgrade",
+                    },
+                },
+            },
+        )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index a01d094eb..1db8afa8e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -982,11 +982,8 @@ def create_commands(self):
                 batch_command=self,
             )
             try:
-                # Validate before the atomic block so errors like
-                # ValidationError don't create/rollback
                 command.full_clean()
-                with transaction.atomic():
-                    command.save()
+                command.save()
             except ValidationError as e:
                 self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = (
                     e.messages if hasattr(e, "messages") else [str(e)]
@@ -1016,52 +1013,50 @@ def calculate_and_update_status(self):
         - All commands completed successfully: status set to "success".
         - Status unchanged: no database write performed.
         """
-        with transaction.atomic():
-            batch = self.__class__.objects.select_for_update().get(pk=self.pk)
-            stats = batch.batch_commands.aggregate(
-                total_operations=models.Count("id"),
-                in_progress=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(status="in-progress", then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-                completed=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(~models.Q(status="in-progress"), then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-                successful=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(status="success", then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-                failed=models.Count(
-                    models.Case(
-                        models.When(status="failed", then=1),
-                        output_field=models.IntegerField(),
-                    )
-                ),
-            )
-            if stats["total_operations"] == 0:
-                if batch.skipped_devices:
-                    new_status = "failed"
-                else:
-                    new_status = "idle"
-            elif stats["in_progress"] > 0:
-                new_status = "in-progress"
-            elif stats["failed"] > 0:
+        batch = self.__class__.objects.get(pk=self.pk)
+        stats = batch.batch_commands.aggregate(
+            total_operations=models.Count("id"),
+            in_progress=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(status="in-progress", then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+            completed=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(~models.Q(status="in-progress"), then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+            successful=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(status="success", then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+            failed=models.Count(
+                models.Case(
+                    models.When(status="failed", then=1),
+                    output_field=models.IntegerField(),
+                )
+            ),
+        )
+        if stats["total_operations"] == 0:
+            if batch.skipped_devices:
                 new_status = "failed"
-            elif (
-                stats["successful"] > 0
-                and stats["completed"] == stats["total_operations"]
-            ):
-                if batch.skipped_devices:
-                    new_status = "failed"
-                else:
-                    new_status = "success"
-            if batch.status != new_status:
-                batch.status = new_status
-                batch.save(update_fields=["status"])
+            else:
+                new_status = "idle"
+        elif stats["in_progress"] > 0:
+            new_status = "in-progress"
+        elif stats["failed"] > 0:
+            new_status = "failed"
+        elif (
+            stats["successful"] > 0 and stats["completed"] == stats["total_operations"]
+        ):
+            if batch.skipped_devices:
+                new_status = "failed"
+            else:
+                new_status = "success"
+        if batch.status != new_status:
+            batch.status = new_status
+            batch.save(update_fields=["status"])
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 7b4955c47..a695494ab 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -4,8 +4,10 @@
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
+from .. import settings as app_settings
 
 Device = load_model("config", "Device")
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
 class CommandConsumer(BaseDeviceConsumer):
@@ -13,3 +15,91 @@ def send_update(self, event):
         data = deepcopy(event)
         data.pop("type")
         self.send(json.dumps(data))
+
+
+class BatchCommandConsumer(BaseDeviceConsumer):
+    model = BatchCommand
+    channel_layer_group = "config.batchcommand"
+
+    def connect(self):
+        # ensure the user can only access the batch command if they
+        # can view the organization it belongs to
+        pk = self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
+        user = self.scope["user"]
+        batch = (
+            BatchCommand.objects.select_related("organization").filter(pk=pk).first()
+        )
+        if not batch:
+            self.close()
+            return
+        if not user.is_superuser and not (
+            batch.organization_id
+            and user.organizations_managed.filter(pk=batch.organization_id).exists()
+        ):
+            self.close()
+            return
+        super().connect()
+
+    def send_update(self, event):
+        data = deepcopy(event)
+        data.pop("type")
+        self.send(json.dumps(data))
+
+    per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
+
+    def receive(self, text_data):
+        try:
+            content = json.loads(text_data)
+        except ValueError:
+            return
+        if content.get("type") == "request_current_state":
+            self._handle_current_state_request(content.get("page"))
+
+    def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
+        """Reply with the state of the page the client is showing.
+
+        The client requests this once on websocket open (and on every
+        reconnect) so the table can be reconciled even for commands created
+        while the page was closed or before the socket connected.
+
+        Only the requested page is sent: a mass command can target thousands
+        of devices, and serializing all of them (including their output) on
+        every connect would make the payload grow without bound.
+        """
+        # Imported here instead of at module import time to avoid
+        # AppRegistryNotReady errors.
+        from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
+
+        batch = BatchCommand.objects.filter(
+            pk=self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
+        ).first()
+        if not batch:
+            return
+        affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
+        batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
+        batch_data["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
+        batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+        try:
+            page = max(int(page), 1)
+        except (TypeError, ValueError):
+            page = 1
+        start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
+        end = start + self.per_page
+        page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[start:end]
+        commands = [command_to_batch_payload(command) for command in page_commands]
+        self.send(
+            json.dumps(
+                {
+                    "model": "BatchState",
+                    "data": {
+                        "batch_status": batch_data,
+                        "commands": commands,
+                        "page": page,
+                        # the table paginates the skipped devices too, they
+                        # are not Command rows
+                        "total_rows": affected_devices
+                        + len(batch.skipped_devices or {}),
+                    },
+                }
+            )
+        )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py
index 2012b86b2..7b8afad04 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/routing.py
@@ -8,5 +8,9 @@ def get_routes(consumer=ow_consumer):
         path(
             "ws/controller/device/<uuid:pk>/command",
             consumer.CommandConsumer.as_asgi(),
-        )
+        ),
+        path(
+            "ws/controller/batch-command/<uuid:pk>",
+            consumer.BatchCommandConsumer.as_asgi(),
+        ),
     ]
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
index 50223a137..d28cfdc5d 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
@@ -35,6 +35,14 @@
     },
 )
 
+# How many results are listed per page on the mass command change page.
+# Shared by the admin, which paginates with it, and by the websocket layer,
+# which tells the browser the page a new result belongs to: the two have to
+# agree or results are drawn on the wrong page.
+BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE = getattr(
+    settings, "OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE", 20
+)
+
 SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT", 2)
 SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT", 60)
 SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT", 30)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 3e3a4c5b4..749070dd7 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -129,10 +129,6 @@
   padding: 0;
 }
 
-#content-main {
-  margin: 20px;
-}
-
 /* Adjustments for list filters */
 #main #content .left-arrow {
   left: -1.125rem;
@@ -148,50 +144,21 @@
 }
 
 /* ================================================================
-   EXECUTION PAGE — Step 1 of 2
+   STEPPER
    ================================================================ */
 
-.batch-command-execution {
-  max-width: 80rem;
-}
-
-/* ── Heading ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.batch-command-execution__heading {
-  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
-  font-size: 1.625rem;
-  font-weight: 600;
-  margin: 0 0 0.25rem;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__heading p {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.9375rem;
-  margin: 0;
-}
+.stepper {
+  --step-active-bg: var(--ow-color-primary);
+  --step-active-text: var(--ow-color-white);
+  --step-active-highlight: var(--ow-color-primary-light);
+  --step-active-tint: var(--ow-color-primary-lighter);
+  --step-active-underline: var(--ow-color-primary);
 
-/* ── Stepper ────────────────────────────────────────────── */
+  --step-inactive-bg: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
+  --step-inactive-text: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
 
-.stepper {
-  --stepper-bg: #ffffff;
-  --stepper-border: #e2e8f0;
-  --stepper-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05), 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.03);
-  --stepper-radius: 9999px;
-
-  --step-active-bg: #0d7377;
-  --step-active-text: #ffffff;
-  --step-active-highlight: #d5f1ea;
-  --step-active-tint: #f0faf6;
-  --step-active-underline: #0d7377;
-
-  --step-inactive-bg: #e8eaed;
-  --step-inactive-text: #9aa0a6;
-
-  --divider-color: #e2e8f0;
-  --arrow-color: #9aa0a6;
+  --divider-color: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
+  --arrow-color: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
   display: inline-flex;
   align-items: stretch;
   overflow: hidden;
@@ -282,399 +249,51 @@
   width: 1rem;
 }
 
-/* ── Cards ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-card {
-  background: #ffffff;
-  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
-  border-radius: 1rem;
-  box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.04);
-  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
-  overflow: hidden;
-}
-
-.bce-card__header {
-  padding: 1.5rem 2rem 0;
-}
-
-.bce-card__header-row {
-  align-items: flex-start;
-  display: flex;
-  justify-content: space-between;
-}
-
-.bce-card__title {
-  font-size: 1.125rem;
-  font-weight: 600;
-  margin: 0 0 0.2rem;
-}
-
-.bce-card__subtitle {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.bce-card__muted {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  white-space: nowrap;
-}
-
-.bce-card__body {
-  padding: 1.25rem 2rem 2rem;
-}
-
-/* ── Form fields inside cards ───────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-field {
-  margin-bottom: 1.25rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field:last-child {
-  margin-bottom: 0;
-}
-
-.bce-field label,
-.bce-field > div > label {
-  display: block;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  margin-bottom: 0.4rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field select,
-.bce-field textarea,
-.bce-field input[type="text"],
-.bce-field input[type="number"],
-.bce-field input[type="password"] {
-  background: #ffffff;
-  border: 1px solid #d0d5dd;
-  border-radius: 0.5rem;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  max-width: 100%;
-  padding: 0.625rem 0.875rem;
-  transition:
-    border-color 0.15s ease,
-    box-shadow 0.15s ease;
-  width: 100%;
-}
-
-.bce-field select:focus,
-.bce-field textarea:focus,
-.bce-field input[type="text"]:focus,
-.bce-field input[type="number"]:focus,
-.bce-field input[type="password"]:focus {
-  border-color: var(--step-active-bg);
-  box-shadow: 0 0 0 3px rgba(13, 115, 119, 0.12);
-  outline: none;
-}
-
-.bce-field select[multiple] {
-  min-height: 8rem;
-  padding: 0.5rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field .help {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  margin-top: 0.35rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field .errors {
-  list-style: none;
-  margin: 0.25rem 0 0;
-  padding: 0;
-}
-
-.bce-field .errors li {
-  color: var(--error-fg);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-}
-
-.bce-field-grid {
-  display: grid;
-  gap: 1.25rem;
-  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;
-}
-
-/* ── Warning banner ─────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-warning {
-  align-items: flex-start;
-  background: #fffbeb;
-  border: 1px solid #fde68a;
-  border-radius: 0.75rem;
-  color: #92400e;
-  display: flex;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  gap: 0.75rem;
-  margin: 0 2rem 1.5rem;
-  padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
-}
-
-.bce-warning svg {
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-  height: 1.25rem;
-  margin-top: 0.1rem;
-  width: 1.25rem;
-}
-
-/* ── Device summary banner ──────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-device-summary {
-  align-items: center;
-  background: #eff6ff;
-  border: 1px solid #bfdbfe;
-  border-radius: 0.75rem;
-  color: #1e40af;
-  display: flex;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  justify-content: space-between;
-  margin-top: 1.5rem;
-  padding: 0.875rem 1.25rem;
-}
-
-.bce-device-summary__live {
-  align-items: center;
-  color: #6b7280;
-  display: flex;
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  font-weight: 400;
-  gap: 0.4rem;
-}
-
-.bce-device-summary__dot {
-  background: #22c55e;
-  border-radius: 50%;
-  display: inline-block;
-  height: 6px;
-  width: 6px;
-}
-
-/* ── Submit row ──────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.batch-command-execution__actions {
-  display: flex;
-  gap: 0.75rem;
-  justify-content: flex-end;
-  margin-top: 1.5rem;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__actions .cancel-link {
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__actions button[disabled] {
-  cursor: not-allowed;
-  opacity: 0.5;
-}
-
-.batch-command-execution__form > .help {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  margin: 0.75rem 0 0;
-  text-align: right;
-}
-
 /* ================================================================
-   CONFIRM / REVIEW PAGE — Step 2 of 2
+   CONFIRM PAGE
    ================================================================ */
 
-/* ── Completed stepper step ─────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge {
-  background-color: #059669;
-  color: #ffffff;
-}
-
-.stepper__step--completed .stepper__badge::before {
-  display: none;
-}
-
-.stepper__check {
-  display: block;
-  height: 1rem;
-  width: 1rem;
-}
-
-.stepper__step--completed .stepper__label-text {
-  color: #059669;
-  font-weight: 600;
-}
-
-/* ── Edit link ──────────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bce-card__edit-link {
-  align-items: center;
-  color: var(--step-active-bg);
-  display: inline-flex;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  gap: 0.35rem;
-  text-decoration: none;
-}
-
-.bce-card__edit-link:hover {
-  text-decoration: underline;
-}
-
-.bce-card__edit-link svg {
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-}
-
-/* ── Summary definition list ────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bcr-summary {
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__row {
-  align-items: baseline;
-  display: flex;
-  gap: 1rem;
-  padding: 0.75rem 0;
-}
+/* The device table on the confirm page is the stock admin changelist,
+   only the surrounding chrome is styled here. */
 
-.bcr-summary__row + .bcr-summary__row {
-  border-top: 1px solid #f1f5f9;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__label {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 400;
-  min-width: 8rem;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__value {
-  font-size: 0.875rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  margin: 0;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__value strong {
-  font-weight: 700;
-}
-
-.bcr-summary__value--warning {
-  color: #d97706;
-  font-weight: 600;
+/* the stepper and the summary sit outside #content-main, so they do not
+   inherit its spacing */
+.confirm-batch-command .stepper {
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
 
-.bcr-summary__badge {
-  background: #f1f5f9;
-  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
-  border-radius: 0.375rem;
-  display: inline-block;
-  font-family: ui-monospace, SFMono-Regular, "SF Mono", Menlo, Consolas, monospace;
-  font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  font-weight: 500;
-  padding: 0.15rem 0.5rem;
+.bc-summary {
+  margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
 
-.bcr-summary__desc {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-weight: 400;
-  margin-left: 0.35rem;
+.bc-summary .form-row {
+  padding: 8px 12px;
 }
 
-/* ── Affected devices placeholder ───────────────────────────── */
-
-.bcr-devices-placeholder {
-  min-height: 6rem;
+/* heading above the device table: only the caption bar, the table follows it
+   as a separate block */
+.bc-devices-heading {
+  margin-bottom: 1rem;
 }
 
-/* ── Sticky action bar ──────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-.bcr-action-bar {
-  align-items: center;
-  background: #ffffff;
-  border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
-  border-radius: 0.75rem;
-  bottom: 1.5rem;
-  box-shadow:
-    0 4px 6px -1px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07),
-    0 2px 4px -2px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.05);
-  display: flex;
-  gap: 1.5rem;
-  justify-content: space-between;
-  margin-top: 1.5rem;
-  padding: 1rem 1.5rem;
-  position: sticky;
-  z-index: 10;
+.confirm-batch-command #changelist {
+  margin-top: 0;
 }
 
-.bcr-action-bar__summary {
-  color: var(--body-quiet-color);
-  font-size: 0.9375rem;
+/* no admin actions on this changelist, so the row would be empty */
+.confirm-batch-command #changelist .actions {
+  display: none;
 }
 
-.bcr-action-bar__summary strong {
-  color: var(--body-fg);
-  font-weight: 600;
+/* the checkbox column: not a link, so it renders as a plain cell */
+.confirm-batch-command #result_list th.column-select_device,
+.confirm-batch-command #result_list td.field-select_device {
+  text-align: center;
+  width: 2rem;
 }
 
-.bcr-action-bar__actions {
-  align-items: center;
+.bc-execute-form .submit-row {
   display: flex;
-  gap: 0.75rem;
-  flex-shrink: 0;
-}
-
-/* ── Responsive ─────────────────────────────────────────── */
-
-@media (max-width: 767px) {
-  .batch-command-execution__heading h1 {
-    font-size: 1.375rem;
-  }
-
-  .bce-card__header {
-    padding: 1.25rem 1.25rem 0;
-  }
-
-  .bce-card__body {
-    padding: 1rem 1.25rem 1.5rem;
-  }
-
-  .bce-field-grid {
-    grid-template-columns: 1fr;
-  }
-
-  .stepper {
-    max-width: 100%;
-  }
-
-  .stepper__step {
-    padding: 0.75rem 1rem 0.75rem 0;
-  }
-
-  .stepper__label-text {
-    font-size: 0.8125rem;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-summary__row {
-    flex-direction: column;
-    gap: 0.25rem;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-summary__label {
-    min-width: 0;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-action-bar {
-    flex-direction: column;
-    gap: 1rem;
-    padding: 1rem 1.25rem;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-action-bar__actions {
-    width: 100%;
-  }
-
-  .bcr-action-bar__actions .button {
-    flex: 1;
-  }
+  gap: 0.5rem;
+  justify-content: flex-end;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..65febc09d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -0,0 +1,357 @@
+"use strict";
+
+// admin/change_form.html loads the translation catalog, these fallbacks only
+// keep the page working if it ever fails to load
+var gettext =
+  window.gettext ||
+  function (word) {
+    return word;
+  };
+var ngettext =
+  window.ngettext ||
+  function (singular, plural, count) {
+    return count === 1 ? singular : plural;
+  };
+var interpolate =
+  window.interpolate ||
+  function (fmt, args) {
+    return fmt.replace(/%s/g, function () {
+      return args.shift();
+    });
+  };
+
+django.jQuery(function ($) {
+  if (
+    typeof owControllerApiHost === "undefined" ||
+    typeof batchCommandId === "undefined"
+  ) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const batchCommandWebSocket = new ReconnectingWebSocket(
+    getWebSocketUrl(),
+    null,
+    {
+      debug: false,
+      automaticOpen: false,
+      // The library re-connects if it fails to establish a connection in "timeoutInterval".
+      // On slow internet connections, the default value of "timeoutInterval" will
+      // keep terminating and re-establishing the connection.
+      timeoutInterval: 7000,
+    },
+  );
+  batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("open", function () {
+    requestCurrentState(batchCommandWebSocket);
+  });
+
+  batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("message", function (e) {
+    let data = JSON.parse(e.data);
+    if (data.model === "Command") {
+      handleCommandMessage($, data.data);
+    } else if (data.model === "BatchCommand") {
+      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.data);
+    } else if (data.model === "BatchState") {
+      handleBatchStateMessage($, data.data);
+    }
+  });
+
+  // "automaticOpen: false" above means the socket never connects unless
+  // .open() is called explicitly (mirrors commands.js's initCommandWebSockets).
+  batchCommandWebSocket.open();
+
+  function getWebSocketUrl() {
+    let protocol = getWebSocketProtocol();
+    return `${protocol}${owControllerApiHost.host}/ws/controller/batch-command/${batchCommandId}`;
+  }
+
+  function getWebSocketProtocol() {
+    let protocol = "ws://";
+    if (window.location.protocol === "https:") {
+      protocol = "wss://";
+    }
+    return protocol;
+  }
+
+  function requestCurrentState(websocket) {
+    if (websocket.readyState === WebSocket.OPEN) {
+      try {
+        websocket.send(
+          JSON.stringify({
+            type: "request_current_state",
+            batch_id: batchCommandId,
+            // only the page being shown is sent back, a mass command can
+            // target thousands of devices
+            page: getCurrentPage(),
+          }),
+        );
+      } catch (error) {
+        console.error("Error requesting current batch state:", error);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
+    if (data.batch_status) {
+      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.batch_status);
+    }
+    updateTotals(
+      $,
+      data.batch_status ? data.batch_status.affected_devices : null,
+      data.total_rows,
+    );
+    if (data.commands && Array.isArray(data.commands)) {
+      // These are the results of the page being shown, selected as such by
+      // the server, so they are drawn unconditionally: running them through
+      // the eligibility test used for live messages would reject them, since
+      // an individual result carries no page of its own.
+      data.commands.forEach(function (command) {
+        let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
+        if ($row.length) {
+          updateRow($, $row, command);
+        } else {
+          insertRow($, command);
+        }
+      });
+    }
+  }
+
+  function getActiveStatusFilter() {
+    return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
+  }
+
+  function getCurrentPage() {
+    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
+  }
+
+  function getPerPage() {
+    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-per-page"), 10) || 20;
+  }
+
+  function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
+    // The totals are updated on every message, whatever happens to the DOM
+    // afterwards. They used to be updated at the end of insertRow(), which
+    // returns early once the page is full, so the counter and the paginator
+    // silently froze as soon as the first page filled up.
+    updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
+    renderCommand($, data);
+  }
+
+  function renderCommand($, data) {
+    let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + data.device);
+    if ($row.length) {
+      updateRow($, $row, data);
+    } else if (belongsOnCurrentPage($, data)) {
+      insertRow($, data);
+    }
+    // otherwise the row belongs to another page and is left alone: it will
+    // be rendered by the server when that page is opened
+  }
+
+  /*
+   * The server states the page a result belongs to, and only does so for
+   * results it has just created. Draw it when that is the page being shown
+   * and it still has room, which is what makes the first page stop at "per
+   * page" rows while the paginator keeps growing, without moving the user.
+   *
+   * The page cannot be derived here from the total number of results: the
+   * total describes the whole batch, not the position of this result. A
+   * status change on the third result still arrives with the total of the
+   * batch, and would be placed on the last page instead of being left alone.
+   */
+  function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
+    // with a filter on, the totals pushed over the websocket are unfiltered
+    // and cannot be used to work out page boundaries
+    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    if (data.page == null) {
+      // a status change, not a new result: it is either already displayed
+      // or it lives on another page
+      return false;
+    }
+    let renderedRows = $("#result_list tbody tr").not(
+      ":has(td.empty-results)",
+    ).length;
+    if (renderedRows >= getPerPage()) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return data.page === getCurrentPage();
+  }
+
+  function updateRow($, $row, data) {
+    let activeFilter = getActiveStatusFilter();
+    if (activeFilter && activeFilter !== data.status) {
+      // the row no longer matches the filter the page was rendered with
+      $row.remove();
+      return;
+    }
+    let $status = $row.find(".command-status");
+    $status
+      .removeClass()
+      .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+      .text(data.status_display);
+    $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
+    $row.find("td:last-child").text(formatTimestamp(data.created));
+  }
+
+  // Only draws the row: whether it should be drawn at all is decided by
+  // belongsOnCurrentPage(), and the totals are updated independently.
+  function insertRow($, data) {
+    // remove the "No commands found." empty state
+    $("#result_list td.empty-results").closest("tr").remove();
+    let $tableBody = $("#result_list tbody");
+    let rowClass = $tableBody.find("tr").length % 2 === 0 ? "row1" : "row2";
+    let $row = $("<tr>").attr({
+      id: "batch-command-row-" + data.device,
+      "data-device-pk": data.device,
+      class: rowClass,
+    });
+    let $deviceTd = $("<td>").append(
+      $("<a>")
+        .attr({ href: getDeviceChangeUrl(data.device), class: "device-link" })
+        .text(data.device_name),
+    );
+    $row.append($deviceTd);
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>").append(
+        $("<span>")
+          .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+          .text(data.status_display),
+      ),
+    );
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>")
+        .addClass("command-output")
+        .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
+    );
+    $row.append($("<td>").text(formatTimestamp(data.created)));
+    $tableBody.append($row);
+  }
+
+  function getDeviceChangeUrl(devicePk) {
+    let template = $("#result_list").attr("data-device-url");
+    if (!template) {
+      return "#";
+    }
+    return template.replace("00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000", devicePk);
+  }
+
+  /*
+   * "affected_devices" counts Command rows, "total_rows" also counts the
+   * skipped devices the table paginates alongside them. They are two
+   * different numbers and drive two different things: passing one for both
+   * makes the page count too small and the last page unreachable whenever a
+   * device was skipped.
+   *
+   * Both are authoritative values recomputed server side on every send,
+   * never a client tracked delta, so a missed or duplicate message cannot
+   * desync them permanently.
+   */
+  function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
+    if (affectedDevices != null) {
+      let $affected = $(".field-affected_devices .readonly");
+      if ($affected.length) {
+        $affected.text(String(affectedDevices));
+      }
+    }
+    if (totalRows == null) {
+      return;
+    }
+    // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
+    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
+      return;
+    }
+    let $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
+    if ($paginator.length) {
+      $paginator.text(
+        interpolate(ngettext("%s command", "%s commands", totalRows), [
+          totalRows,
+        ]),
+      );
+    }
+    renderPagination($, totalRows);
+  }
+
+  /*
+   * Rebuilt from scratch rather than patched, so there is a single code
+   * path whether or not the widget was rendered by the server. Patching
+   * only the "Page X of Y" label used to leave the last page without a
+   * "Next" link: at "3 of 3" growing to "3 of 5" the label changed but
+   * there was still no way to move forward.
+   *
+   * This only touches the pagination widget, never the rows: the user is
+   * never navigated automatically, and no page is ever re-fetched.
+   */
+  function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
+    let currentPage = getCurrentPage();
+    let perPage = getPerPage();
+    let totalPages = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(totalRows / perPage));
+    $(".results-container .pagination").remove();
+    if (totalPages <= 1) {
+      return;
+    }
+    let pageLabel =
+      gettext("Page") +
+      " " +
+      currentPage +
+      " " +
+      gettext("of") +
+      " " +
+      totalPages;
+    let params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
+    params.delete("page");
+    let baseQuery = params.toString();
+    let buildHref = function (page) {
+      return "?" + (baseQuery ? baseQuery + "&page=" + page : "page=" + page);
+    };
+    let $stepLinks = $("<span>").addClass("step-links");
+    if (currentPage > 1) {
+      $stepLinks.append(
+        $("<a>")
+          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage - 1))
+          .text(gettext("Previous")),
+      );
+    }
+    $stepLinks.append($("<span>").addClass("current-page").text(pageLabel));
+    if (currentPage < totalPages) {
+      $stepLinks.append(
+        $("<a>")
+          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage + 1))
+          .text(gettext("Next")),
+      );
+    }
+    $("<div>")
+      .addClass("pagination")
+      .append($stepLinks)
+      .appendTo(".results-container");
+  }
+
+  function handleBatchCommandMessage($, data) {
+    let $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
+    if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
+      $status
+        .removeClass()
+        .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+        .text(data.status_display);
+    }
+    if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
+      let $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
+      if ($list.length) {
+        let $first = $list.contents().first();
+        if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
+          $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  function formatTimestamp(iso) {
+    if (!iso) {
+      return "-";
+    }
+    let date = new Date(iso);
+    if (isNaN(date.getTime())) {
+      return "-";
+    }
+    return date.toLocaleString();
+  }
+});
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index b832a5009..320f88f32 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -1,157 +1,381 @@
 django.jQuery(function ($) {
   "use strict";
 
-  var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
-  var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+  // Both steps of the mass command workflow load this file. Each section
+  // returns early when the element it is anchored to is missing, so only
+  // the one belonging to the current page does anything.
+  initExecuteCommandForm($);
+  initConfirmCommandSelection($);
 
-  var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
-  if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+  // Execute command js
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
 
-  var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
-  var $container = $("#command-input-container");
-  var fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
-  var $hiddenInput;
+  function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
+    var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
+    var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
 
-  function ensureHiddenInput() {
-    $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
-    if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
-      $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
-      $form.append($hiddenInput);
+    var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
+    if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+
+    var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
+    var $container = $("#command-input-container");
+    var fieldName = $("#id_input").length
+      ? $("#id_input").attr("name")
+      : "input";
+    var $hiddenInput;
+
+    function ensureHiddenInput() {
+      $hiddenInput = $form.find(
+        'input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]',
+      );
+      if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
+        $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
+        $form.append($hiddenInput);
+      }
     }
-  }
 
-  function clearContainer() {
-    $container.empty();
-  }
+    function clearContainer() {
+      $container.empty();
+    }
 
-  function syncCustom() {
-    var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
-    val = $.trim(val);
-    $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
-  }
+    function syncCustom() {
+      var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
+      val = $.trim(val);
+      $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
+    }
 
-  function syncPassword() {
-    var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
-    var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
-    $hiddenInput.val(
-      pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
-    );
-  }
+    function syncPassword() {
+      var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
+      var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
+      $hiddenInput.val(
+        pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
+      );
+    }
 
-  function buildCustomField() {
-    var $wrapper = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
-    $wrapper.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-command">Command</label>');
-    $wrapper.append(
-      '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
-        fieldName +
-        '" placeholder="e.g. uptime" class="vTextField">',
-    );
-    $wrapper.append(
-      '<div class="help">Enter the shell command to run on all devices</div>',
-    );
-    $container.append($wrapper);
-  }
+    function buildCustomField() {
+      var $wrapper = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+      var $fc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+      $fc.append(
+        '<label for="bce-dynamic-command" class="required">' +
+          gettext("Command") +
+          "</label>",
+      );
+      $fc.append(
+        '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
+          fieldName +
+          '" class="vTextField">',
+      );
+      $wrapper.append($fc);
+      $wrapper.append(
+        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-command_helptext"><div>' +
+          gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
+          "</div></div>",
+      );
+      $container.append($wrapper);
+    }
 
-  function buildChangePasswordField() {
-    var $grid = $('<div class="bce-field-grid"></div>');
+    function buildChangePasswordField() {
+      var $pwRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+      var $pwFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+      $pwFc.append(
+        '<label for="bce-dynamic-password" class="required">' +
+          gettext("New password") +
+          "</label>",
+      );
+      $pwFc.append(
+        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+      );
+      $pwRow.append($pwFc);
+      $pwRow.append(
+        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-password_helptext"><div>' +
+          gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
+          "</div></div>",
+      );
+      $container.append($pwRow);
 
-    var $pwField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
-    $pwField.append('<label for="bce-dynamic-password">New password</label>');
-    $pwField.append(
-      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-    );
-    $grid.append($pwField);
+      var $cpRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+      var $cpFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+      $cpFc.append(
+        '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" class="required">' +
+          gettext("Confirm password") +
+          "</label>",
+      );
+      $cpFc.append(
+        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+      );
+      $cpRow.append($cpFc);
+      $container.append($cpRow);
+    }
 
-    var $cpField = $('<div class="bce-field"></div>');
-    $cpField.append(
-      '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password">Confirm password</label>',
-    );
-    $cpField.append(
-      '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-    );
-    $grid.append($cpField);
+    function onTypeChange() {
+      var selected = $typeSelect.val();
+      clearContainer();
+
+      if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+        buildCustomField();
+        syncCustom();
+      } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+        buildChangePasswordField();
+        syncPassword();
+      } else {
+        $hiddenInput.val("");
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Reaching this page starts a new mass command, so drop the device
+    // selections of any earlier one the user configured but never executed:
+    // they are namespaced per command and would otherwise pile up for as
+    // long as the browser tab lives.
+    discardAbandonedSelections();
 
-    $container.append($grid);
-    $container.append(
-      '<div class="bce-field"><div class="help">Password must be at least 6 characters long</div></div>',
+    ensureHiddenInput();
+    $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
+    $container.on(
+      "input",
+      "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
+      syncPassword,
     );
-  }
+    $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
+    onTypeChange();
 
-  function onTypeChange() {
-    var selected = $typeSelect.val();
-    clearContainer();
+    $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").select2({
+      theme: "default",
+      placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
+      allowClear: true,
+      width: "resolve",
+    });
 
-    if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      buildCustomField();
-      syncCustom();
-    } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-      buildChangePasswordField();
-      syncPassword();
-    } else {
-      $hiddenInput.val("");
+    // Admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back to
+    // this page re-fetches it and the browser restores the previous form
+    // values after select2 has already been initialized, leaving the rendered
+    // labels stale. Re-sync the select2 display on every pageshow event.
+    $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
+      $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").each(
+        function () {
+          var $field = $(this);
+          if ($field.data("select2")) $field.trigger("change.select2");
+        },
+      );
+      if ($typeSelect.val()) {
+        onTypeChange();
+        var data = null;
+        try {
+          data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
+        } catch (e) {
+          data = null;
+        }
+        if (data && data.command) {
+          $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val(data.command);
+        }
+      }
+    });
+
+    function clearAllErrors() {
+      $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
+      $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
     }
-  }
 
-  ensureHiddenInput();
-  $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
-  $container.on(
-    "input",
-    "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
-    syncPassword,
-  );
-  $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
-  onTypeChange();
-
-  var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
-  if ($reviewBtn.length) {
-    $typeSelect.on("change", function () {
-      $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$(this).val());
-    });
-    $reviewBtn.prop("disabled", !$typeSelect.val());
+    function showFieldError($row, message) {
+      $row.addClass("errors");
+      $row.prepend('<ul class="errorlist"><li>' + message + "</li></ul>");
+    }
 
-    $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
-      var type = $typeSelect.val();
-      if (!type) return;
+    var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
+    if ($reviewBtn.length) {
+      $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
+        clearAllErrors();
 
-      var params = new URLSearchParams();
-      params.append("type", type);
+        var type = $typeSelect.val();
+        var $typeRow = $typeSelect.closest(".form-row");
+        var hasError = false;
 
-      var inputVal = $hiddenInput.val();
-      if (inputVal) {
-        params.append("input", inputVal);
-      }
+        if (!type) {
+          showFieldError($typeRow, gettext("This field is required."));
+          hasError = true;
+        }
+
+        var label = $("#id_label").val();
+        if (!label || !$.trim(label)) {
+          showFieldError(
+            $("#id_label").closest(".form-row"),
+            gettext("This field is required."),
+          );
+          hasError = true;
+        }
+
+        if (type === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+          var cmd = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
+          if (!cmd || !$.trim(cmd)) {
+            showFieldError(
+              $container.find(".form-row").first(),
+              gettext("This field is required."),
+            );
+            hasError = true;
+          }
+        }
 
-      var label = $("#id_label").val();
-      if (label) {
-        params.append("label", label);
+        if (hasError) return;
+
+        $form.submit();
+      });
+    }
+  }
+
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+  // Confirm command js
+  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+
+  /*
+   * Device selection on the confirm page.
+   *
+   * Every device matched by the targets chosen on the first step starts
+   * selected, unselecting one adds it to the "excluded" list. That list is
+   * kept both in a hidden field, submitted when the command is executed, and
+   * in sessionStorage, because turning the page of the device table is an
+   * ordinary page load: without it, unselecting a device on the first page
+   * would be forgotten as soon as the second page is opened.
+   */
+  var STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
+
+  function discardAbandonedSelections() {
+    try {
+      var storage = window.sessionStorage;
+      for (var i = storage.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+        var key = storage.key(i);
+        if (key && key.indexOf(STORAGE_PREFIX) === 0) {
+          storage.removeItem(key);
+        }
       }
+    } catch (e) {
+      // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable
+    }
+  }
+
+  function initConfirmCommandSelection($) {
+    var $form = $("#bc-execute-form");
+    if (!$form.length) return;
+
+    // Namespaced by the token the server issues for this mass command:
+    // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so a shared key would
+    // make a new command inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
+    var STORAGE_KEY = STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
+    var $table = $("#result_list");
+    var $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
+    var $count = $("#bc-selected-count");
+    var $button = $("#bc-execute-button");
+    var totalDevices = parseInt($form.data("total-devices"), 10) || 0;
+    var excluded = readStoredExclusions();
 
-      var notes = $("#id_notes").val();
-      if (notes) {
-        params.append("notes", notes);
+    function readStoredExclusions() {
+      var stored = {};
+      try {
+        var raw = window.sessionStorage.getItem(STORAGE_KEY);
+        $.each(raw ? JSON.parse(raw) : [], function (index, pk) {
+          stored[pk] = true;
+        });
+      } catch (e) {
+        // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable:
+        // the selection is then simply not carried across pages
       }
+      return stored;
+    }
 
-      var org = $("#id_organization").val();
-      if (org) {
-        params.append("organization", org);
+    function storeExclusions(pks) {
+      try {
+        window.sessionStorage.setItem(STORAGE_KEY, JSON.stringify(pks));
+      } catch (e) {
+        // see readStoredExclusions()
       }
+    }
 
-      var group = $("#id_group").val();
-      if (group) {
-        params.append("group", group);
+    function clearExclusions() {
+      try {
+        window.sessionStorage.removeItem(STORAGE_KEY);
+      } catch (e) {
+        // see readStoredExclusions()
       }
+    }
+
+    // rows are rendered selected by the server, restore the ones which were
+    // unselected on a previously visited page
+    function restoreCheckboxes() {
+      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
+        var $checkbox = $(this);
+        $checkbox.prop("checked", !excluded[$checkbox.val()]);
+      });
+    }
+
+    function refresh() {
+      var pks = Object.keys(excluded);
+      var selected = Math.max(totalDevices - pks.length, 0);
+      $excludedField.val(pks.join(","));
+      storeExclusions(pks);
+      $count.text(selected);
+      $button.text(
+        interpolate(
+          ngettext("Execute on %s device", "Execute on %s devices", selected),
+          [selected],
+        ),
+      );
+      $button.prop("disabled", selected === 0);
+      refreshSelectAll();
+    }
 
-      var location = $("#id_location").val();
-      if (location) {
-        params.append("location", location);
+    function refreshSelectAll() {
+      var $checkboxes = $table.find(".bc-select-device");
+      var $checked = $checkboxes.filter(":checked");
+      $("#bc-select-all").prop(
+        "checked",
+        $checkboxes.length > 0 && $checked.length === $checkboxes.length,
+      );
+    }
+
+    // the changelist has no header checkbox of its own once the admin
+    // actions are disabled, so add one for the current page
+    function addSelectAllCheckbox() {
+      var $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
+      if (!$header.length || $header.find("#bc-select-all").length) return;
+      $header.append(
+        $("<input>").attr({
+          type: "checkbox",
+          id: "bc-select-all",
+          title: gettext("Select all devices on this page"),
+        }),
+      );
+    }
+
+    $table.on("change", ".bc-select-device", function () {
+      var pk = $(this).val();
+      if (this.checked) {
+        delete excluded[pk];
+      } else {
+        excluded[pk] = true;
       }
+      refresh();
+    });
 
-      $("#id_devices option:selected").each(function () {
-        params.append("devices", $(this).val());
+    // only the devices listed on the current page are affected: devices the
+    // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
+    $table.on("change", "#bc-select-all", function () {
+      var checked = this.checked;
+      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
+        var $checkbox = $(this);
+        if ($checkbox.prop("checked") !== checked) {
+          $checkbox.prop("checked", checked).trigger("change");
+        }
       });
+    });
 
-      var confirmUrl = window.location.href.replace("execute/", "confirm/");
-      window.location.href = confirmUrl.split("?")[0] + "?" + params.toString();
+    $form.on("submit", function () {
+      clearExclusions();
+      // guards against a double click creating two mass commands, the
+      // server discards the second request as well
+      $button.prop("disabled", true);
     });
+
+    addSelectAllCheckbox();
+    restoreCheckboxes();
+    refresh();
   }
 });
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 43ae2a83c..b432c5dee 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -6,6 +6,14 @@
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/changelists.css" %}">
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/ow-filters.css" %}">
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+<script>
+{% if OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_API_HOST %}
+    const owControllerApiHost = new URL('{{ OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_API_HOST }}');
+{% else %}
+    const owControllerApiHost = window.location;
+{% endif %}
+    const batchCommandId = '{{ original.pk }}';
+</script>
 {% endblock %}
 
 {% block content %}
@@ -96,7 +104,11 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 
 <!-- Results Table -->
 <div class="results-container">
-  <table id="result_list" class="results-table">
+  <table id="result_list" class="results-table"
+    data-device-url="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"
+    data-active-status="{{ request.GET.status|default:'' }}"
+    data-per-page="{{ paginator.per_page }}"
+    data-current-page="{{ page_obj.number }}">
     <thead>
       <tr>
         <th>{% trans "Device" %}</th>
@@ -107,7 +119,9 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
     </thead>
     <tbody>
       {% for command in commands %}
-      <tr class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
+      <tr id="batch-command-row-{{ command.device_pk }}"
+          data-device-pk="{{ command.device_pk }}"
+          class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
         <td>
           {% if command.is_skipped %}
           <span class="device-name-disabled">{{ command.device_name }}</span>
@@ -170,4 +184,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 {% block footer %}
 {{ block.super }}
 <script src="{% static "admin/js/ow-filter.js" %}"></script>
+<script src="{% static "connection/js/lib/reconnecting-websocket.min.js" %}"></script>
+<script src="{% static "connection/js/batch-command.js" %}"></script>
 {% endblock %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index a6975ab80..4105befd7 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -1,155 +1,164 @@
-{% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
+{% extends device_changelist_template|default:"admin/change_list.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
+{% comment %}
+Second step of the mass command workflow.
+
+This extends the changelist template of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for
+Device, not the stock one, because that is where other modules load the assets
+their columns need: openwisp-monitoring pulls the stylesheet and the script of
+the health status accordion in from there. The device table, its pagination and
+its styling are then reused as they are, and only the surrounding chrome is
+added here. BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin empties list_filter and search_fields,
+which is enough for the parent template to render neither.
+See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template().
+
+Note the two forms on this page are siblings, never nested: the changelist
+brings its own <form> (which is never submitted, its checkboxes have no name)
+and the execute button lives in a separate one below it.
+{% endcomment %}
+
+{% block extrastyle %}
+{{ block.super }}
+{% comment %}
+The changelist only loads forms.css when it has a formset, but the summary
+below is built out of the same .module.aligned rows the execute page uses and
+needs it for its spacing.
+{% endcomment %}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/forms.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+{% endblock %}
+
 {% block extrahead %}
 {{ block.super }}
-{{ media }}
-<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
+<script src="{% url 'admin:jsi18n' %}"></script>
+<script src="{% static "connection/js/execute-command.js" %}" defer></script>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+
+{% comment %}
+Suppresses the changelist's "Add Device" button, which has no place on a
+confirmation screen. Overriding the block empty also removes the duplicate: the
+theme declares object-tools twice, in .title-wrapper (admin/base.html) and in
+#content-main (admin/change_list.html), so the default renders at both.
+{% endcomment %}
+{% block object-tools %}{% endblock %}
 
 {% block breadcrumbs %}
 <div class="breadcrumbs">
   <a href="{% url 'admin:index' %}">{% trans 'Home' %}</a>
-  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=opts.app_label %}">{{ opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
-  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url 'admin:app_list' app_label=batch_opts.app_label %}">{{ batch_opts.app_config.verbose_name }}</a>
+  &rsaquo; <a href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{{ batch_opts.verbose_name_plural|capfirst }}</a>
   &rsaquo; {% trans 'Review mass command' %}
 </div>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
+{% comment %}
+Everything goes in a single "content" block.
 
+Not "object-tools": the openwisp theme declares that block twice, once inside
+.title-wrapper in admin/base.html and once inside #content-main in
+admin/change_list.html, so overriding it renders the content in both places.
+The same is true of "filters". And a template may only declare a given block
+once, so the stepper, the summary, the device table and the execute button all
+live in this one block.
+{% endcomment %}
 {% block content %}
-<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
-  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
-    <h1>{% trans 'Review mass command' %}</h1>
-    <p>{% trans 'Confirm what will run before execution.' %}</p>
+<nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
+    <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
+    <span class="stepper__label">
+      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+    </span>
   </div>
+  <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+    <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+      <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+    </svg>
+  </div>
+  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+    <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+    <span class="stepper__label">
+      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+    </span>
+  </div>
+</nav>
 
-  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--completed">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">
-        <svg class="stepper__check" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-          <path d="M3.5 8.5L6.5 11.5L12.5 5.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-        </svg>
-      </span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-      </svg>
+<fieldset class="module aligned bc-summary">
+  <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Type' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ command_type_display }}</div>
     </div>
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-  </nav>
-
-  {# ── Summary card ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bce-card">
-    <div class="bce-card__header">
-      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-        <div>
-          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
-        </div>
-        <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="bce-card__edit-link">
-          <svg viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="14" height="14">
-            <path d="M10.5 3.5L12.5 5.5L5.5 12.5H3.5V10.5L10.5 3.5Z" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-          </svg>
-          {% trans 'Edit' %}
-        </a>
-      </div>
+  </div>
+  {% if command_description %}
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Command' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly"><code>{{ command_description }}</code></div>
     </div>
-    <div class="bce-card__body">
-      <dl class="bcr-summary">
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Command' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
-            <span class="bcr-summary__badge">{{ command_type_display }}</span>
-            {% if command_description %}<span class="bcr-summary__desc">&mdash; {{ command_description }}</span>{% endif %}
-          </dd>
-        </div>
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Targets' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ targets_display }}</dd>
-        </div>
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will run on' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">
-            <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
-          </dd>
-        </div>
-        {% if skipped_devices_count %}
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Will skip' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value bcr-summary__value--warning">
-            {{ skipped_devices_count }} {% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}device{% plural %}devices{% endblocktrans %}
-          </dd>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-        <div class="bcr-summary__row">
-          <dt class="bcr-summary__label">{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</dt>
-          <dd class="bcr-summary__value">{{ request.user }}</dd>
-        </div>
-      </dl>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Label' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ wizard.label }}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
-
-  {% if skipped_devices_count %}
-  {# ── Warning banner ──────────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bce-warning">
-    <svg viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="currentColor" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-      <path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M8.257 3.099c.765-1.36 2.722-1.36 3.486 0l5.58 9.92c.75 1.334-.213 2.98-1.742 2.98H4.42c-1.53 0-2.493-1.646-1.743-2.98l5.58-9.92zM11 13a1 1 0 10-2 0 1 1 0 002 0zm-1-8a1 1 0 00-1 1v3a1 1 0 002 0V6a1 1 0 00-1-1z" clip-rule="evenodd"/>
-    </svg>
-    <div>
-      <strong>{% blocktrans count skipped_devices_count=skipped_devices_count %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} device will be skipped{% plural %}{{ skipped_devices_count }} devices will be skipped{% endblocktrans %}</strong>
-      <p>{% trans 'These devices do not match the selected filters or are not available.' %}</p>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Targets' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ targets_display }}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
-  {% endif %}
-
-  {# ── Affected devices ──────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bce-card">
-    <div class="bce-card__header">
-      <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-        <div>
-          <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
-          <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Devices that will receive this command' %}</p>
-        </div>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Will run on' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">
+        <strong id="bc-selected-count">{{ device_count }}</strong> {% trans 'devices' %}
       </div>
     </div>
-    <div class="bce-card__body">
-      <div class="bcr-devices-placeholder"></div>
+  </div>
+  <div class="form-row">
+    <div class="flex-container">
+      <label>{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</label>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ request.user }} &mdash; {% now "F j, Y, P" %}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
+</fieldset>
+
+{# same .module h2 caption bar as the Summary heading above #}
+<fieldset class="module aligned bc-devices-heading">
+  <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
+</fieldset>
+
+{# the device table, its pagination and its own <form> #}
+{{ block.super }}
 
-  {# ── Sticky action bar ─────────────────────────────────── #}
-  <div class="bcr-action-bar">
-    <div class="bcr-action-bar__summary">
-      {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
-      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> device
+{# sibling of the changelist's form, never nested inside it #}
+{% comment %}
+"data-wizard-token" namespaces the sessionStorage entry holding the unselected
+devices. sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so without it a new
+mass command would inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
+{% endcomment %}
+<form method="post" id="bc-execute-form" class="bc-execute-form"
+  data-total-devices="{{ device_count }}"
+  data-wizard-token="{{ wizard.token }}">
+  {% csrf_token %}
+  <input type="hidden" name="excluded" id="id_excluded" value="">
+  <div class="submit-row">
+    <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
+    <button type="submit" class="default" id="bc-execute-button">
+      {% blocktrans trimmed count counter=device_count %}
+      Execute on {{ counter }} device
       {% plural %}
-      About to run <strong>{{ command_type_display }}</strong> on <strong>{{ device_count }}</strong> devices
+      Execute on {{ counter }} devices
       {% endblocktrans %}
-    </div>
-    <div class="bcr-action-bar__actions">
-      <a href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}" class="button">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
-      <button type="button" class="button default">
-        {% blocktrans count device_count=device_count %}
-        Execute on {{ device_count }} device
-        {% plural %}
-        Execute on {{ device_count }} devices
-        {% endblocktrans %}
-      </button>
-    </div>
+    </button>
   </div>
-</div>
+</form>
 {% endblock %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index 851311e37..a0da29fe5 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -1,14 +1,26 @@
 {% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
+{% comment %}
+First step of the mass command workflow: collects the command details and the
+targets. A valid submission is stored in the session and redirects to the
+confirm page, where the matched devices can be reviewed.
+{% endcomment %}
+
+{% block extrastyle %}
+{{ block.super }}
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/forms.css" %}">
+<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
+{{ media.css }}
+{% endblock %}
+
 {% block extrahead %}
 {{ block.super }}
-{{ media }}
-<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static 'connection/css/batch-command.css' %}">
-<script src="{% static 'connection/js/execute-command.js' %}"></script>
+<script src="{% url 'admin:jsi18n' %}"></script>
+{{ media.js }}
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block bodyclass %}app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} execute-batch-command{% endblock %}
+{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} app-{{ opts.app_label }} model-{{ opts.model_name }} execute-batch-command{% endblock %}
 
 {% block breadcrumbs %}
 <div class="breadcrumbs">
@@ -19,140 +31,125 @@
 </div>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block content_title %}{% endblock %}
-
 {% block content %}
-<div id="content-main" class="batch-command-execution">
-  <div class="batch-command-execution__heading">
-    <h1>{% trans 'Execute mass command' %}</h1>
-    <p>{% trans 'Run a shell command across many devices at once' %}</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-    <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-      <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
-        <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
-      </svg>
-    </div>
-    <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
-      <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label">
-        <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
-      </span>
-    </div>
-  </nav>
-
-  <form class="batch-command-execution__form" novalidate>
-
-    {# ── Command card ─────────────────────────────────── #}
-    <div class="bce-card">
-      <div class="bce-card__header">
-        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-          <div>
-            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Command' %}</h2>
-            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'What to run on the selected devices' %}</p>
-          </div>
+<div id="content-main">
+  <form method="post" novalidate>
+    {% csrf_token %}
+    <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
+      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
+        <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label">
+          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
+          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+        </span>
+      </div>
+      <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
+        <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+          <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
+        </svg>
+      </div>
+      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
+        <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
+        <span class="stepper__label">
+          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
+          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+        </span>
+      </div>
+    </nav>
+
+    {% if form.non_field_errors %}
+    <p class="errornote">{{ form.non_field_errors }}</p>
+    {% endif %}
+
+    <fieldset class="module aligned">
+      <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
+      <div class="form-row field-type{% if form.type.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.type.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.type.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.type }}
         </div>
+        {% if form.type.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.type.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.type.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.type.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-      <div class="bce-card__body">
-        {% with field=form.type %}
-        <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-          {{ field.errors }}
-          <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-          {{ field }}
-          {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
+      {# execute-command.js renders the fields of the selected command type here #}
+      <div id="command-input-container"></div>
+      {{ form.input }}
+      {% if form.input.errors %}
+      <div class="form-row errors">{{ form.input.errors }}</div>
+      {% endif %}
+      <div class="form-row field-label{% if form.label.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.label.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.label.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.label }}
         </div>
-        {% endwith %}
-
-        <div id="command-input-container"></div>
-
-        <div class="bce-field-grid">
-          {% with field=form.label %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
-
-          {% with field=form.notes %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
+        {% if form.label.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.label.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.label.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.label.help_text }}</div>
         </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-    </div>
-
-    {# ── Targets card ──────────────────────────────────── #}
-    <div class="bce-card">
-      <div class="bce-card__header">
-        <div class="bce-card__header-row">
-          <div>
-            <h2 class="bce-card__title">{% trans 'Targets' %}</h2>
-            <p class="bce-card__subtitle">{% trans 'Which devices receive this command' %}</p>
-          </div>
-          <span class="bce-card__muted">{% trans 'Filters combine with AND' %}</span>
+      <div class="form-row field-notes{% if form.notes.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.notes.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.notes.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.notes }}
         </div>
+        {% if form.notes.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.notes.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.notes.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.notes.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-      <div class="bce-card__body">
-        <div class="bce-field-grid">
-          {% with field=form.organization %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
-
-          {% with field=form.location %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
-
-          {% with field=form.group %}
-          <div class="bce-field{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-            {{ field.errors }}
-            <label for="{{ field.id_for_label }}">{{ field.label }}</label>
-            {{ field }}
-            {% if field.help_text %}<div class="help">{{ field.help_text }}</div>{% endif %}
-          </div>
-          {% endwith %}
+    </fieldset>
+
+    <fieldset class="module aligned">
+      <h2>{% trans "Targets" %}</h2>
+      <div class="form-row field-organization{% if form.organization.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.organization.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.organization.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.organization }}
         </div>
-
-        <div class="bce-device-summary">
-          <span>{% trans '12 devices match these filters' %}</span>
-          <span class="bce-device-summary__live">
-            <span class="bce-device-summary__dot"></span>
-            {% trans 'Updated live' %}
-          </span>
+        {% if form.organization.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.organization.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.organization.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.organization.help_text }}</div>
         </div>
+        {% endif %}
       </div>
-    </div>
+      <div class="form-row field-location{% if form.location.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.location.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.location.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.location }}
+        </div>
+        {% if form.location.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.location.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.location.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.location.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
+      </div>
+      <div class="form-row field-group{% if form.group.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+        {{ form.group.errors }}
+        <div class="flex-container">
+          {{ form.group.label_tag }}
+          {{ form.group }}
+        </div>
+        {% if form.group.help_text %}
+        <div class="help"{% if form.group.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.group.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+          <div>{{ form.group.help_text }}</div>
+        </div>
+        {% endif %}
+      </div>
+    </fieldset>
 
-    {# ── Hidden submit (kept for form validation) ──────── #}
-    <div class="submit-row batch-command-execution__actions">
-      <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans 'Cancel' %}</a>
-      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">
-        {% trans 'Review command' %}
-      </button>
+    <div class="submit-row">
+      <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans "Cancel" %}</a>
+      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">{% trans "Review command" %}</button>
     </div>
   </form>
 </div>

From a167425ba29694deff2bd6d6dadb5e1efd904db8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 14 Aug 2026 07:19:35 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 07/13] [fix] Refactoring

---
 .../connection/api/serializers.py             |  13 --
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  37 ++---
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |   2 +-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  95 +++++------
 openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py    |   8 -
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   | 147 ++++++------------
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |   4 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |  86 +++-------
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        |  32 ++--
 9 files changed, 144 insertions(+), 280 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
index 37c4280cd..e776def03 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/api/serializers.py
@@ -15,19 +15,6 @@
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
-def command_to_batch_payload(command):
-    """Serialize a Command into the payload used for batch-command websocket messages.
-
-    Shared by the batch-command signal receiver and the batch-command consumer so
-    real-time messages and the initial ``request_current_state`` reply use the same
-    shape (including the extra fields the admin table needs to render a row).
-    """
-    data = CommandSerializer(command).data
-    data["device_name"] = command.device.name
-    data["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
-    return data
-
-
 class ValidatedDeviceFieldSerializer(ValidatedModelSerializer):
     def validate(self, data):
         # Add "device_id" to the data for validation
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 1abc5cca9..b739d6513 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -11,7 +11,6 @@
 from openwisp_utils.admin_theme.menu import register_menu_group, register_menu_subitem
 
 from ..config.signals import config_deactivating, config_modified
-from .settings import BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
 from .signals import is_working_changed
 
 
@@ -75,7 +74,7 @@ def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
 
     @classmethod
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
-        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
+        from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
 
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
@@ -86,30 +85,19 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
                 {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
             )
         if instance.batch_command_id:
-            batch_data = command_to_batch_payload(instance)
-            # Authoritative counts, recomputed fresh on every send rather than
-            # relying on the client to increment a running total (a missed
-            # or duplicate message would otherwise desync it permanently).
+            batch_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
+            batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
+            batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+            batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
             batch = instance.batch_command
-            affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
+            affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
             batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-            # the table also paginates the skipped devices, which are not
-            # Command rows: without them the client computes too few pages
-            # and the last one becomes unreachable
-            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
-                batch.skipped_devices or {}
-            )
+            batch_data["total_rows"] = batch.total_devices
             if created:
-                # Results are ordered by creation, so a new one is always the
-                # last: its index is the count minus one. Only new results
-                # carry a page, a status change is not a new row and must not
-                # be drawn anywhere it is not already displayed.
-                batch_data["page"] = (
-                    affected_devices - 1
-                ) // BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE + 1
+                batch_data["index"] = affected_devices - 1
             async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
                 f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}",
-                {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": batch_data},
+                {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
             )
 
     @classmethod
@@ -117,11 +105,12 @@ def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
 
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
-        serialized_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
-        serialized_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+        batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
+        batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+        batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
         async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
             f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
-            {"type": "send.update", "model": "BatchCommand", "data": serialized_data},
+            {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
         )
 
     @classmethod
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 1db8afa8e..ef868ac03 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -809,7 +809,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     @cached_property
     def total_devices(self):
-        return self.batch_commands.count() + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
+        return self.affected_devices + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
     @cached_property
     def affected_devices(self):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index a695494ab..73e3e760b 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -1,10 +1,13 @@
 import json
+import logging
 from copy import deepcopy
 
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
-from .. import settings as app_settings
+from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, CommandSerializer
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
 Device = load_model("config", "Device")
 BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
@@ -20,65 +23,52 @@ def send_update(self, event):
 class BatchCommandConsumer(BaseDeviceConsumer):
     model = BatchCommand
     channel_layer_group = "config.batchcommand"
-
-    def connect(self):
-        # ensure the user can only access the batch command if they
-        # can view the organization it belongs to
-        pk = self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
-        user = self.scope["user"]
-        batch = (
-            BatchCommand.objects.select_related("organization").filter(pk=pk).first()
-        )
-        if not batch:
-            self.close()
-            return
-        if not user.is_superuser and not (
-            batch.organization_id
-            and user.organizations_managed.filter(pk=batch.organization_id).exists()
-        ):
-            self.close()
-            return
-        super().connect()
+    per_page = 20
+    current_state_message = "request_current_state"
 
     def send_update(self, event):
-        data = deepcopy(event)
-        data.pop("type")
-        self.send(json.dumps(data))
+        self.send(json.dumps(event["data"]))
 
-    per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
+    def is_user_authorized(self):
+        user = self.scope["user"]
+        if user.is_superuser:
+            return True
+        # a mass command cannot be changed or deleted from the admin
+        if not (
+            user.is_staff and self._user_has_permissions(change=False, delete=False)
+        ):
+            return False
+        organization_id = (
+            self.model.objects.filter(pk=self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"])
+            .values_list("organization_id", flat=True)
+            .first()
+        )
+        return bool(organization_id) and user.is_manager(str(organization_id))
 
     def receive(self, text_data):
         try:
             content = json.loads(text_data)
         except ValueError:
+            logger.warning("Received a websocket message which is not valid JSON")
             return
-        if content.get("type") == "request_current_state":
+        message_type = content.get("type")
+        if message_type == self.current_state_message:
             self._handle_current_state_request(content.get("page"))
+        else:
+            logger.warning(f"Unknown websocket message type received: {message_type}")
 
     def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
-        """Reply with the state of the page the client is showing.
-
-        The client requests this once on websocket open (and on every
-        reconnect) so the table can be reconciled even for commands created
-        while the page was closed or before the socket connected.
-
-        Only the requested page is sent: a mass command can target thousands
-        of devices, and serializing all of them (including their output) on
-        every connect would make the payload grow without bound.
-        """
-        # Imported here instead of at module import time to avoid
-        # AppRegistryNotReady errors.
-        from ..api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer, command_to_batch_payload
+        """Handle request for current state of the operation"""
 
         batch = BatchCommand.objects.filter(
             pk=self.scope["url_route"]["kwargs"]["pk"]
         ).first()
         if not batch:
+            # deleted after the connection was accepted
             return
-        affected_devices = batch.batch_commands.count()
-        batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
-        batch_data["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
-        batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+        batch_status = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
+        batch_status["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
+        batch_status["affected_devices"] = batch.affected_devices
         try:
             page = max(int(page), 1)
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
@@ -86,20 +76,19 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
         start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
         end = start + self.per_page
         page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[start:end]
-        commands = [command_to_batch_payload(command) for command in page_commands]
+        commands = []
+        for command in page_commands:
+            row = CommandSerializer(command).data
+            row["device_name"] = command.device.name
+            row["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
+            commands.append(row)
         self.send(
             json.dumps(
                 {
-                    "model": "BatchState",
-                    "data": {
-                        "batch_status": batch_data,
-                        "commands": commands,
-                        "page": page,
-                        # the table paginates the skipped devices too, they
-                        # are not Command rows
-                        "total_rows": affected_devices
-                        + len(batch.skipped_devices or {}),
-                    },
+                    "type": "batch_state",
+                    "batch_status": batch_status,
+                    "commands": commands,
+                    "total_rows": batch.total_devices,
                 }
             )
         )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
index d28cfdc5d..50223a137 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/settings.py
@@ -35,14 +35,6 @@
     },
 )
 
-# How many results are listed per page on the mass command change page.
-# Shared by the admin, which paginates with it, and by the websocket layer,
-# which tells the browser the page a new result belongs to: the two have to
-# agree or results are drawn on the wrong page.
-BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE = getattr(
-    settings, "OPENWISP_CONTROLLER_BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE", 20
-)
-
 SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_AUTH_TIMEOUT", 2)
 SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_BANNER_TIMEOUT", 60)
 SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT = getattr(settings, "OPENWISP_SSH_COMMAND_TIMEOUT", 30)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 749070dd7..b3aa607a5 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -1,23 +1,20 @@
+/* ==== Mass Command Change Page CSS ==== */
 #batchcommand_form .submit-row {
   display: none;
 }
-
 .commands-title {
   font-size: 22px;
   font-weight: 300;
   margin: 0;
   padding: 0;
 }
-
 .search-section {
   padding: 20px;
 }
-
 .search-form {
   display: flex;
   align-items: center;
 }
-
 #main #content .search-icon {
   width: 20px;
   height: 20px;
@@ -25,92 +22,89 @@
   font-size: 16px;
   margin-top: -3px;
 }
-
 #main #content .search-input {
   padding: 10px 15px;
 }
-
 #main #content .search-button {
   padding: 10px 20px;
   margin-left: 15px;
 }
-
 .filter-clear-link:hover {
   color: var(--ow-color-fg-darker);
 }
-
 .results-table {
   width: 100%;
   border-collapse: collapse;
+  /* the output column takes whatever these three leave over */
+  --device-column: 22%;
+  --status-column: 10%;
+  --modified-column: 12%;
+}
+.results-table th:nth-child(1),
+.results-table td:nth-child(1):not(.empty-results) {
+  width: var(--device-column);
+}
+.results-table th:nth-child(2),
+.results-table td:nth-child(2) {
+  width: var(--status-column);
+  white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.results-table th:nth-child(4),
+.results-table td:nth-child(4) {
+  width: var(--modified-column);
+  white-space: nowrap;
 }
-
 #main #content .device-link {
   color: var(--ow-color-primary);
   font-weight: bold;
 }
-
 .device-name-disabled {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   font-style: italic;
 }
-
 .empty-results {
   padding: 40px;
   text-align: center;
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   font-style: italic;
 }
-
 .pagination {
   padding: 15px 20px;
   text-align: right;
   border-top: 2px solid var(--hairline-color);
   background: var(--darkened-bg);
 }
-
 .pagination a {
   color: var(--body-fg);
   text-decoration: none;
   margin: 0 5px;
 }
-
 .pagination .current-page {
   margin: 0 10px;
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
-
 .paginator {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   padding: 10px 20px;
   border-bottom: 1px solid var(--hairline-color);
   margin: 0;
 }
-
 .command-status {
   font-weight: bold;
 }
-
 .command-status.success {
   color: var(--ow-color-success);
 }
-
 .command-status.failed {
   color: var(--error-fg);
 }
-
 .command-status.in-progress {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
 }
-
 .command-status.skipped {
   color: var(--body-quiet-color);
   opacity: 0.7;
 }
-
-.command-output {
-  padding: 0;
-}
-
 .command-output pre {
   white-space: pre-wrap;
   word-wrap: break-word;
@@ -120,16 +114,14 @@
   color: inherit;
   background: transparent;
 }
-
 .skipped-devices-list {
   line-height: 1.7;
 }
-
 .field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
   padding: 0;
 }
 
-/* Adjustments for list filters */
+/* List Filters */
 #main #content .left-arrow {
   left: -1.125rem;
 }
@@ -143,29 +135,19 @@
   margin-bottom: 0.5rem;
 }
 
-/* ================================================================
-   STEPPER
-   ================================================================ */
-
+/* ==== Stepper CSS ==== */
 .stepper {
   --step-active-bg: var(--ow-color-primary);
   --step-active-text: var(--ow-color-white);
-  --step-active-highlight: var(--ow-color-primary-light);
-  --step-active-tint: var(--ow-color-primary-lighter);
-  --step-active-underline: var(--ow-color-primary);
-
   --step-inactive-bg: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
   --step-inactive-text: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
-
-  --divider-color: var(--ow-color-fg-light);
   --arrow-color: var(--ow-color-fg-dark);
   display: inline-flex;
   align-items: stretch;
   overflow: hidden;
   margin-bottom: 1.75rem;
 }
-
-.stepper__step {
+.stepper-step {
   align-items: center;
   cursor: pointer;
   display: flex;
@@ -173,9 +155,7 @@
   padding: 0.875rem 1.5rem 0.875rem 0;
   position: relative;
 }
-
-/* Badge */
-.stepper__badge {
+.stepper-badge {
   align-items: center;
   border-radius: 50%;
   display: flex;
@@ -188,60 +168,42 @@
   width: 2rem;
   z-index: 1;
 }
-
-.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge {
+.stepper-step.active .stepper-badge {
   background-color: var(--step-active-bg);
   color: var(--step-active-text);
 }
-
-.stepper__step--active .stepper__badge::before {
-  background-color: var(--step-active-highlight);
-}
-
-.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge {
+.stepper-step.inactive .stepper-badge {
   background-color: var(--step-inactive-bg);
   color: var(--step-inactive-text);
 }
-
-.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__badge::before {
-  display: none;
-}
-
-/* Label */
-.stepper__label {
+.stepper-label {
   display: flex;
   flex-direction: column;
   gap: 0.2rem;
   min-width: 0;
 }
-
-.stepper__label-text {
+.stepper-label-text {
   font-size: 0.875rem;
   font-weight: 500;
   line-height: 1.2;
   white-space: nowrap;
 }
-
-.stepper__step--active .stepper__label-text {
+.stepper-step.active .stepper-label-text {
   color: var(--step-active-bg);
   font-weight: 600;
 }
-
-.stepper__step--inactive .stepper__label-text {
+.stepper-step.inactive .stepper-label-text {
   color: var(--step-inactive-text);
   font-weight: 500;
 }
-
-/* Divider + arrow */
-.stepper__divider {
+.stepper-divider {
   align-items: center;
   display: flex;
   flex-shrink: 0;
   justify-content: center;
   padding: 0.5rem 1rem 0.5rem 0;
 }
-
-.stepper__arrow {
+.stepper-arrow {
   color: var(--arrow-color);
   display: block;
   flex-shrink: 0;
@@ -249,50 +211,41 @@
   width: 1rem;
 }
 
-/* ================================================================
-   CONFIRM PAGE
-   ================================================================ */
-
-/* The device table on the confirm page is the stock admin changelist,
-   only the surrounding chrome is styled here. */
-
-/* the stepper and the summary sit outside #content-main, so they do not
-   inherit its spacing */
-.confirm-batch-command .stepper {
+/* ==== Confirm Page CSS ==== */
+.confirm-command .stepper {
   margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
-
-.bc-summary {
+.command-summary {
   margin-bottom: 1.5rem;
 }
-
-.bc-summary .form-row {
+.command-summary .form-row {
   padding: 8px 12px;
 }
-
-/* heading above the device table: only the caption bar, the table follows it
-   as a separate block */
-.bc-devices-heading {
+.devices-heading {
   margin-bottom: 1rem;
 }
-
-.confirm-batch-command #changelist {
+.confirm-command #changelist {
   margin-top: 0;
 }
-
 /* no admin actions on this changelist, so the row would be empty */
-.confirm-batch-command #changelist .actions {
+.confirm-command #changelist .actions {
   display: none;
 }
-
-/* the checkbox column: not a link, so it renders as a plain cell */
-.confirm-batch-command #result_list th.column-select_device,
-.confirm-batch-command #result_list td.field-select_device {
+/* Django styles its own rows with "tr:has(.action-select:checked)", which cannot match here */
+.confirm-command #changelist tbody tr:has(.device-checkbox:checked) {
+  background-color: var(--selected-row);
+}
+@media (forced-colors: active) {
+  .confirm-command #changelist tbody tr:has(.device-checkbox:checked) {
+    background-color: SelectedItem;
+  }
+}
+.confirm-command #result_list th.column-select_device,
+.confirm-command #result_list td.field-select_device {
   text-align: center;
   width: 2rem;
 }
-
-.bc-execute-form .submit-row {
+.execute-form .submit-row {
   display: flex;
   gap: 0.5rem;
   justify-content: flex-end;
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index b432c5dee..d3bb2c54a 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
         <th>{% trans "Device" %}</th>
         <th>{% trans "Status" %}</th>
         <th>{% trans "Output" %}</th>
-        <th>{% trans "Timestamp" %}</th>
+        <th>{% trans "Modified" %}</th>
       </tr>
     </thead>
     <tbody>
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
         <td class="command-output">
           <pre>{{ command.output|default:"-" }}</pre>
         </td>
-        <td>{{ command.created|date|default:"-" }}</td>
+        <td>{{ command.modified|date|default:"-" }}</td>
       </tr>
       {% empty %}
       <tr>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index 4105befd7..ec92e55e9 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -1,30 +1,12 @@
 {% extends device_changelist_template|default:"admin/change_list.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
-{% comment %}
-Second step of the mass command workflow.
-
-This extends the changelist template of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for
-Device, not the stock one, because that is where other modules load the assets
-their columns need: openwisp-monitoring pulls the stylesheet and the script of
-the health status accordion in from there. The device table, its pagination and
-its styling are then reused as they are, and only the surrounding chrome is
-added here. BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin empties list_filter and search_fields,
-which is enough for the parent template to render neither.
-See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template().
-
-Note the two forms on this page are siblings, never nested: the changelist
-brings its own <form> (which is never submitted, its checkboxes have no name)
-and the execute button lives in a separate one below it.
-{% endcomment %}
+{# step two: extends the changelist template of the registered Device admin, #}
+{# so the assets of columns added by other modules load too #}
+{# see BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_changelist_template() #}
 
 {% block extrastyle %}
 {{ block.super }}
-{% comment %}
-The changelist only loads forms.css when it has a formset, but the summary
-below is built out of the same .module.aligned rows the execute page uses and
-needs it for its spacing.
-{% endcomment %}
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "admin/css/forms.css" %}">
 <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="{% static "connection/css/batch-command.css" %}">
 {% endblock %}
@@ -35,14 +17,9 @@
 <script src="{% static "connection/js/execute-command.js" %}" defer></script>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} confirm-batch-command{% endblock %}
+{% block bodyclass %}{{ block.super }} confirm-command{% endblock %}
 
-{% comment %}
-Suppresses the changelist's "Add Device" button, which has no place on a
-confirmation screen. Overriding the block empty also removes the duplicate: the
-theme declares object-tools twice, in .title-wrapper (admin/base.html) and in
-#content-main (admin/change_list.html), so the default renders at both.
-{% endcomment %}
+{# hides the changelist's "Add device" button #}
 {% block object-tools %}{% endblock %}
 
 {% block breadcrumbs %}
@@ -54,40 +31,28 @@
 </div>
 {% endblock %}
 
-{% comment %}
-Everything goes in a single "content" block.
-
-Not "object-tools": the openwisp theme declares that block twice, once inside
-.title-wrapper in admin/base.html and once inside #content-main in
-admin/change_list.html, so overriding it renders the content in both places.
-The same is true of "filters". And a template may only declare a given block
-once, so the stepper, the summary, the device table and the execute button all
-live in this one block.
-{% endcomment %}
 {% block content %}
 <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
-    <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
-    <span class="stepper__label">
-      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+  <div class="stepper-step inactive">
+    <span class="stepper-badge">1</span>
+    <span class="stepper-label">
+      <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
     </span>
   </div>
-  <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-    <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+  <div class="stepper-divider" aria-hidden="true">
+    <svg class="stepper-arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
       <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
     </svg>
   </div>
-  <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-    <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-    <span class="stepper__label">
-      <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-      <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+  <div class="stepper-step active" aria-current="step">
+    <span class="stepper-badge">2</span>
+    <span class="stepper-label">
+      <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
     </span>
   </div>
 </nav>
 
-<fieldset class="module aligned bc-summary">
+<fieldset class="module aligned command-summary">
   <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   <div class="form-row">
     <div class="flex-container">
@@ -119,7 +84,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
     <div class="flex-container">
       <label>{% trans 'Will run on' %}</label>
       <div class="readonly">
-        <strong id="bc-selected-count">{{ device_count }}</strong> {% trans 'devices' %}
+        <strong id="selected-count">{{ device_count }}</strong> {% trans 'devices' %}
       </div>
     </div>
   </div>
@@ -131,28 +96,23 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   </div>
 </fieldset>
 
-{# same .module h2 caption bar as the Summary heading above #}
-<fieldset class="module aligned bc-devices-heading">
+<fieldset class="module aligned devices-heading">
   <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
 </fieldset>
 
-{# the device table, its pagination and its own <form> #}
+{# renders the changelist: the device table, its pagination, and the <form> wrapping both #}
+{# HTML does not allow nested forms, so the execute form below is a sibling of that one: #}
+{# nesting it made the browser drop the opening tag, leaving the button outside any form #}
 {{ block.super }}
 
-{# sibling of the changelist's form, never nested inside it #}
-{% comment %}
-"data-wizard-token" namespaces the sessionStorage entry holding the unselected
-devices. sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so without it a new
-mass command would inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
-{% endcomment %}
-<form method="post" id="bc-execute-form" class="bc-execute-form"
+<form method="post" id="execute-form" class="execute-form"
   data-total-devices="{{ device_count }}"
   data-wizard-token="{{ wizard.token }}">
   {% csrf_token %}
   <input type="hidden" name="excluded" id="id_excluded" value="">
   <div class="submit-row">
     <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
-    <button type="submit" class="default" id="bc-execute-button">
+    <button type="submit" class="default" id="execute-button">
       {% blocktrans trimmed count counter=device_count %}
       Execute on {{ counter }} device
       {% plural %}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index a0da29fe5..0aec77986 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -1,11 +1,8 @@
 {% extends "admin/base_site.html" %}
 {% load i18n admin_urls static %}
 
-{% comment %}
-First step of the mass command workflow: collects the command details and the
-targets. A valid submission is stored in the session and redirects to the
-confirm page, where the matched devices can be reviewed.
-{% endcomment %}
+{# step one: collects the command details and targets, saves them in the session, #}
+{# then redirects to the confirm page #}
 
 {% block extrastyle %}
 {{ block.super }}
@@ -36,29 +33,27 @@
   <form method="post" novalidate>
     {% csrf_token %}
     <nav class="stepper" aria-label="{% trans 'Execution progress' %}">
-      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--active" aria-current="step">
-        <span class="stepper__badge">1</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label">
-          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
-          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      <div class="stepper-step active" aria-current="step">
+        <span class="stepper-badge">1</span>
+        <span class="stepper-label">
+          <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Configure' %}</span>
         </span>
       </div>
-      <div class="stepper__divider" aria-hidden="true">
-        <svg class="stepper__arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
+      <div class="stepper-divider" aria-hidden="true">
+        <svg class="stepper-arrow" viewBox="0 0 16 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
           <path d="M6 3.5L10.5 8L6 12.5" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="1.5" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round"/>
         </svg>
       </div>
-      <div class="stepper__step stepper__step--inactive">
-        <span class="stepper__badge">2</span>
-        <span class="stepper__label">
-          <span class="stepper__label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
-          <span class="stepper__label-underline" aria-hidden="true"></span>
+      <div class="stepper-step inactive">
+        <span class="stepper-badge">2</span>
+        <span class="stepper-label">
+          <span class="stepper-label-text">{% trans 'Review' %}</span>
         </span>
       </div>
     </nav>
 
     {% if form.non_field_errors %}
-    <p class="errornote">{{ form.non_field_errors }}</p>
+    <p class="errornote">{{ form.non_field_errors|join:" " }}</p>
     {% endif %}
 
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
@@ -75,7 +70,6 @@ <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
         </div>
         {% endif %}
       </div>
-      {# execute-command.js renders the fields of the selected command type here #}
       <div id="command-input-container"></div>
       {{ form.input }}
       {% if form.input.errors %}

From 68d60a835540956111140a4e1607c91114a00d7b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Sat, 15 Aug 2026 02:58:07 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 08/13] [feature] Finalize mass command admin workflow #1345

Aligns the admin workflow with the patterns used by the batch upgrade
of openwisp-firmware-upgrader and fixes the issues found while
reviewing the whole feature.

- Reuse BatchCommand.dry_run() for the confirm page target queryset
  instead of duplicating the targeting rule in the admin
- Return querysets from resolve_devices() and dry_run(), consuming
  them with iterator() where the whole result is walked
- Restore the live counters: affected_devices and total_devices were
  cached properties, which froze the websocket payload at the value
  computed for the first command of the batch
- Truncate the command output of the results table to its last line
- Show date and time in the "Modified" column, formatted server side
  so that live rows and reloaded rows are identical
- Fix the location filter of the skipped devices, which used a non
  existing device_id field of DeviceLocation and raised a 500
- Show the "Clear all filters" link for the location, group and
  organization filters too
- Remove one COUNT query per changelist row by annotating the
  affected devices, and fetch the batch and the skipped devices only
  once per request
- Use message_user(), load the swappable models at module level and
  drop the duplicated readonly fields for consistency with the other
  admin classes
- Restructure batch-command.js and execute-command.js to module level
  functions, dropping the dead gettext fallbacks and guards
- Sync the verbose name of skipped_devices in the migrations, which
  was left unmigrated and failed checkmigrations
- Update the query count of the estimated location tests, the
  location foreign key of BatchCommand adds a SET NULL cascade

Closes #1345
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 242 +++----
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |   6 +
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  29 +-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |   6 +
 ...0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   2 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   |   6 +-
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     | 531 ++++++--------
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 661 ++++++++----------
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |   2 +-
 .../geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py     |   5 +-
 ...0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   2 +-
 11 files changed, 668 insertions(+), 824 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 9a6d70cd0..782cb13f4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
 from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
+from django.db.models import Count
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
 from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
@@ -22,7 +23,6 @@
 
 from ..admin import MultitenantAdminMixin
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
-from . import settings as app_settings
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
@@ -31,6 +31,11 @@
 DeviceConnection = swapper.load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
 BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
+Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
+DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
+DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
+Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
 
 
 class CredentialsForm(forms.ModelForm):
@@ -46,14 +51,6 @@ class Meta:
 
 
 class BatchCommandExecutionForm(forms.ModelForm):
-    """Collects the mass command details on the first step of the workflow.
-
-    This form is the only place where the submitted values are validated.
-    Narrowing the querysets in ``__init__`` controls what the widgets offer,
-    it does not control what is accepted, so ``clean()`` re-checks the
-    submitted values against the organizations the user actually manages.
-    """
-
     required_css_class = "required"
 
     class Meta:
@@ -69,14 +66,10 @@ class Meta:
         ]
         widgets = {
             "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
-            # filled in by execute-command.js, which renders the fields
-            # relevant to the selected command type
             "input": forms.HiddenInput(),
         }
 
     class Media:
-        # select2 must be loaded before jquery.init.js, which calls
-        # jQuery.noConflict(): same ordering as admin.widgets.AutocompleteMixin
         js = [
             "admin/js/vendor/jquery/jquery.min.js",
             "admin/js/vendor/select2/select2.full.min.js",
@@ -345,27 +338,14 @@ def schema_view(self, request):
 
 
 class BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin:
-    """Turns the device changelist into the selection table of the confirm page.
-
-    Applied on top of whichever ModelAdmin is registered for Device rather
-    than on top of this module's DeviceAdmin, because other modules replace
-    that registration: openwisp-monitoring unregisters Device and registers
-    its own subclass, which adds the health status column. Building on the
-    registered class means those columns appear here too, along with the
-    select_related and the media they need, without this module knowing
-    which ones exist. See BatchCommandAdmin.get_device_admin().
-
-    Filters and search are removed on purpose: the devices are already
-    determined by the targets chosen on the execute page, this table only
-    allows excluding individual devices from that set. Emptying
-    ``list_filter`` and ``search_fields`` is enough for the stock changelist
-    template to render neither, so it can be reused as it is.
+    """Applied on top of the ModelAdmin registered for Device, for
+    openwisp-monitoring which replaces that registration and
+    its extra columns must appear.
+
+    Filters and search are emptied because the devices are already chosen on
+    the execute page, this table only excludes some of them.
     """
 
-    # DeviceAdmin leaves this as an empty tuple, which ModelAdmin reads as
-    # "link the first column": that would wrap the checkbox in an <a> and
-    # navigate to the device instead of ticking it. Name is the column the
-    # device changelist links anyway.
     list_display_links = ["name"]
     list_filter = []
     search_fields = []
@@ -373,12 +353,6 @@ class BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin:
     list_per_page = 20
     ordering = ["name"]
     change_list_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
-    # django-import-export replaces change_list_template on the instance with
-    # a template of its own, which redefines the object-tools block and so
-    # brings back the "Import", "Export" and "Add device" buttons this page
-    # suppresses. Setting this to None is its documented way of opting out:
-    # ImportExportMixinBase.init_change_list_template() then falls back to
-    # the template set above. Unused when import-export is not installed.
     import_export_change_list_template = None
 
     def __init__(self, model, admin_site, devices=None):
@@ -386,30 +360,21 @@ def __init__(self, model, admin_site, devices=None):
         self.devices = devices
 
     def get_list_display(self, request):
-        # resolved per request instead of being a class attribute: the
-        # attribute would be a snapshot taken when this module is imported,
-        # which can be before another module has replaced the registration
         return ["select_device"] + list(super().get_list_display(request))
 
     def get_queryset(self, request):
-        # MultitenantAdminMixin.get_queryset() scopes this to the
-        # organizations managed by the user, independently of list_filter
         return super().get_queryset(request).filter(pk__in=self.devices)
 
     @admin.display(description="")
     def select_device(self, obj):
-        # deliberately without a "name": these checkboxes are never
-        # submitted, execute-command.js mirrors them into the hidden
-        # "excluded" field of the form holding the execute button
         return format_html(
-            '<input type="checkbox" class="bc-select-device" value="{}" checked>',
+            '<input type="checkbox" class="device-checkbox" value="{}" checked>',
             obj.pk,
         )
 
 
 class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     execute_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html"
-    # rendered through BatchCommandDeviceAdmin.change_list_template
     confirm_command_template = "admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html"
     session_key = "batch_command_wizard"
     list_display = [
@@ -440,7 +405,7 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     change_form_template = (
         "admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html"
     )
-    device_commands_per_page = app_settings.BATCH_COMMAND_PAGE_SIZE
+    device_commands_per_page = 20
     exclude = ("devices",)
     fields = [
         "organization_display",
@@ -459,14 +424,9 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
     readonly_fields = [
         "organization_display",
         "colored_status",
-        "type",
         "formatted_input",
         "affected_devices",
         "display_skipped_devices",
-        "group",
-        "location",
-        "created",
-        "modified",
     ]
 
     class Media:
@@ -500,11 +460,8 @@ def _check_add_permission(self, request):
 
     def execute_command_view(self, request):
         """First step of the mass command workflow: collect the details.
-
-        A valid submission is stored in the session and the user is
-        redirected to the confirm page (Post/Redirect/Get), so that the
-        device table there can be paginated with ordinary GET requests: a
-        pagination link cannot carry the contents of a form.
+        A valid submission goes to the session and redirects to the confirm
+        page, so that its device table can be paginated with plain GETs.
         """
         self._check_add_permission(request)
         if request.method == "POST":
@@ -531,9 +488,7 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
 
     def confirm_command_view(self, request):
         """Second step: review the targeted devices and dispatch the command.
-
-        Dispatching is decided by the HTTP method alone, never by looking
-        for a field in the request body.
+        Dispatching is decided by the HTTP method alone.
         """
         self._check_add_permission(request)
         if request.method == "POST":
@@ -553,21 +508,11 @@ def confirm_command_view(self, request):
 
     def get_device_admin(self, devices):
         """Builds the ModelAdmin rendering the device table of the confirm page.
-
-        Composed with the ModelAdmin currently registered for Device instead
-        of a named class, so that the table shows the columns of the device
-        changelist as it actually is. Modules layered on top of the
-        controller replace that registration rather than extending the class
-        this module imports: openwisp-monitoring, for one, unregisters Device
-        and registers a subclass adding the health status column.
-
-        Resolved here, per request, rather than at import time: every app has
-        finished loading by now, so the registration is final. Nothing is
-        imported from those modules and none of them needs to know about this
-        page; with none of them installed this returns the controller's own
-        Device admin and the table is unchanged.
+        Composed with whichever ModelAdmin is registered for Device, so the
+        table shows the columns of the device changelist as it actually is:
+        openwisp-monitoring replaces that registration to add its own.
+        Resolved per request, when the registration is final.
         """
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
         registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
         # the mixin comes first so that its attributes win over the
         # registered admin's
@@ -580,16 +525,10 @@ def get_device_admin(self, devices):
 
     def get_device_changelist_template(self):
         """The template the registered Device admin renders its changelist with.
-
-        The confirm page extends it instead of the stock changelist template,
-        because that is where other modules load the assets their columns
-        need: openwisp-monitoring pulls in the stylesheet drawing the health
-        status accordion, and the script expanding it, from there.
-
-        Read from the class rather than from an instance, since
-        django-import-export rewrites the attribute on the instance.
+        The confirm page extends it rather than the stock one, because that
+        is where other modules load the assets their columns need. Read from
+        the class: django-import-export rewrites it on the instance.
         """
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
         registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
         return getattr(registered, "change_list_template", None) or (
             "admin/change_list.html"
@@ -597,41 +536,45 @@ def get_device_changelist_template(self):
 
     def _restart(self, request):
         """Sends the user back to step one when there is no wizard to show."""
-        messages.warning(
-            request, _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue.")
+        self.message_user(
+            request,
+            _("Please fill in the mass command details to continue."),
+            messages.WARNING,
         )
         return redirect(f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_execute")
 
     def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
         """Devices matched by the organization, group and location chosen.
-
-        ``distinct()`` and an explicit ordering are required because this
-        queryset is paginated: the devicelocation join can return the same
-        device more than once, and page boundaries are undefined without an
-        ordering.
+        The targeting rule lives on the model so this page and the execution
+        cannot drift apart; the multitenancy scope and the ordering the
+        pagination needs are admin concerns, applied on top.
         """
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        qs = Device.objects.all()
+        try:
+            devices = BatchCommand.dry_run(
+                organization_id=wizard.get("organization_id"),
+                group_id=wizard.get("group_id"),
+                location_id=wizard.get("location_id"),
+            )["devices"]
+        except ValidationError:
+            # a wizard left in the session while its group or location moved
+            # to another organization: nothing matches, and execute() reports
+            # it through its usual error path
+            return Device.objects.none()
         if not request.user.is_superuser:
-            qs = qs.filter(organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed)
-        if wizard.get("organization_id"):
-            qs = qs.filter(organization_id=wizard["organization_id"])
-        if wizard.get("group_id"):
-            qs = qs.filter(group_id=wizard["group_id"])
-        if wizard.get("location_id"):
-            qs = qs.filter(devicelocation__location_id=wizard["location_id"])
-        return qs.distinct().order_by("name")
+            devices = devices.filter(
+                organization_id__in=request.user.organizations_managed
+            )
+        return devices.distinct().order_by("name")
 
     def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
         targets = []
-        for app_label, model_name, key in (
-            ("openwisp_users", "Organization", "organization_id"),
-            ("config", "DeviceGroup", "group_id"),
-            ("geo", "Location", "location_id"),
+        for model, key in (
+            (Organization, "organization_id"),
+            (DeviceGroup, "group_id"),
+            (Location, "location_id"),
         ):
             if not wizard.get(key):
                 continue
-            model = swapper.load_model(app_label, model_name)
             target = model.objects.filter(pk=wizard[key]).first()
             if target:
                 targets.append(str(target))
@@ -651,10 +594,8 @@ def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
 
     def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         """Applies the device selection and dispatches the mass command.
-
-        The wizard is popped from the session before anything else happens,
-        so that a double submit cannot create the batch twice: the second
-        request finds nothing and is sent back to step one.
+        The wizard is popped first, so a double submit cannot create the
+        batch twice: the second request finds nothing and restarts.
         """
         wizard = request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
         if not wizard:
@@ -680,11 +621,13 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         except ValidationError as error:
             # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
             request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
-            messages.error(request, error.messages[0])
+            self.message_user(request, error.messages[0], messages.ERROR)
             return redirect(
                 f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
             )
-        messages.success(request, _("Mass command executed successfully."))
+        self.message_user(
+            request, _("Mass command executed successfully."), messages.SUCCESS
+        )
         return redirect(
             f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_change", batch.pk
         )
@@ -697,6 +640,22 @@ def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
         return fields + list(self.__class__.readonly_fields)
 
+    def get_queryset(self, request):
+        return (
+            super()
+            .get_queryset(request)
+            .annotate(_affected_devices=Count("batch_commands", distinct=True))
+        )
+
+    def get_object(self, request, object_id, from_field=None):
+        """Avoids duplicating queries in change_view custom logic"""
+        cache_attr = f"_cached_object_{object_id}_{from_field}"
+        if not hasattr(request, cache_attr):
+            setattr(
+                request, cache_attr, super().get_object(request, object_id, from_field)
+            )
+        return getattr(request, cache_attr)
+
     def _get_commands(self, request, obj):
         qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=obj).select_related("device")
         if not request.user.is_superuser:
@@ -733,17 +692,27 @@ def formatted_input(self, obj):
     formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
 
     def affected_devices(self, obj):
-        return obj.affected_devices
+        count = getattr(obj, "_affected_devices", None)
+        if count is None:
+            count = obj.affected_devices
+        return count
 
     affected_devices.short_description = _("affected devices")
+    affected_devices.admin_order_field = "_affected_devices"
+
+    def _get_skipped_devices(self, obj):
+        if not hasattr(obj, "_skipped_devices_cache"):
+            obj._skipped_devices_cache = {
+                str(device.pk): device
+                for device in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+            }
+        return obj._skipped_devices_cache
 
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)}
-        count = len(pks)
+        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
+        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
         lines = [str(count)]
         for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
             device = devices.get(pk_str)
@@ -795,8 +764,6 @@ class StatusFilter:
 
         filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
 
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
-
         # Location filter
         location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
             _("location"),
@@ -864,22 +831,17 @@ def _command_row(command):
             "device_pk": command.device.pk,
             "status": command.status,
             "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
-            "output": (command.output or "").lstrip(),
-            "created": command.created,
+            "output": command.output_preview,
+            "modified": command.modified,
             "is_skipped": False,
         }
 
     def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=None):
         """Returns one page of rows without loading the whole batch in memory.
-
         Commands keep the ordering of ``AbstractCommand.Meta`` ("created"),
-        which is the order they were fanned out in: the newest one is always
-        last. That is what lets the change page append results live without
-        re-fetching, because a new result always belongs on the last page.
-
-        Skipped devices are not Command rows, they are entries of the
-        ``skipped_devices`` field, so they are kept as a (normally short)
-        list and follow the commands.
+        so the newest is always last and the change page can append results
+        live. Skipped devices are not Command rows, they come as a list and
+        follow the commands.
         """
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
         commands_count = commands_qs.count()
@@ -924,21 +886,19 @@ def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
         return qs
 
     def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
-        Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
         pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-        device_qs = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=pks)
         location_id = filters["location_id"]
         if location_id:
-            DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
-            device_locations = set(
-                DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
-                    device_id__in=pks,
+            device_locations = {
+                str(pk)
+                for pk in DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
+                    content_object_id__in=pks,
                     location_id=location_id,
-                ).values_list("device_id", flat=True)
-            )
+                ).values_list("content_object_id", flat=True)
+            }
         else:
             device_locations = None
-        devices = {str(d.pk): d for d in device_qs}
+        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
         rows = []
         for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
             device = devices.get(pk_str)
@@ -962,7 +922,7 @@ def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
                     "status": "skipped",
                     "status_display": _("skipped"),
                     "output": ", ".join(errors),
-                    "created": None,
+                    "modified": None,
                     "is_skipped": True,
                 }
             )
@@ -996,7 +956,7 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
                     "paginator": paginator,
                     "filter_specs": filter_specs,
                     "has_active_filters": any(
-                        request.GET.get(param) for param in ["status"]
+                        value for key, value in filters.items() if key != "q"
                     ),
                 }
             )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index b739d6513..5fb187972 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -3,6 +3,8 @@
 from django.apps import AppConfig
 from django.db import transaction
 from django.db.models.signals import post_save
+from django.utils.formats import date_format
+from django.utils.timezone import localtime
 from django.utils.translation import gettext_lazy as _
 from openwisp_notifications.signals import notify
 from openwisp_notifications.types import register_notification_type
@@ -88,6 +90,10 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
             batch_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
             batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
             batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
+            batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
+            batch_data["modified"] = date_format(
+                localtime(instance.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
+            )
             batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
             batch = instance.batch_command
             affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index ef868ac03..0fab4bd63 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -550,6 +550,16 @@ def _verify_command_type_allowed(self):
                 }
             )
 
+    @property
+    def output_preview(self):
+        """Last line of the output, for tables which list many commands."""
+        lines = (self.output or "").strip().splitlines()
+        if not lines:
+            return ""
+        if len(lines) == 1:
+            return lines[0]
+        return "… " + lines[-1]
+
     @property
     def is_custom(self):
         return self.type == "custom"
@@ -807,11 +817,11 @@ class Meta:
     def __str__(self):
         return self.label
 
-    @cached_property
+    @property
     def total_devices(self):
         return self.affected_devices + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
-    @cached_property
+    @property
     def affected_devices(self):
         return self.batch_commands.count()
 
@@ -888,12 +898,13 @@ def clean(self):
 
     def resolve_devices(self):
         """
-        Returns an iterator of devices targeted by this batch command,
+        Returns a queryset of devices targeted by this batch command,
         resolved from explicit M2M devices or filtered by organization,
-        group, and location. Returns an empty iterator if no devices match.
+        group, and location. Callers which walk the whole result should
+        consume it with iterator().
         """
         if self.pk and self.devices.exists():
-            return self.devices.select_related("config").iterator()
+            return self.devices.select_related("config")
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         qs = Device.objects.select_related("config")
         if self.organization_id:
@@ -902,7 +913,7 @@ def resolve_devices(self):
             qs = qs.filter(group=self.group)
         if self.location:
             qs = qs.filter(devicelocation__location=self.location)
-        return qs.iterator()
+        return qs
 
     @classmethod
     def execute(cls, **kwargs):
@@ -920,7 +931,7 @@ def execute(cls, **kwargs):
                 batch.devices.set(devices_list)
                 batch._validate_org_relations()
             else:
-                batch.devices.set(list(batch.resolve_devices()))
+                batch.devices.set(batch.resolve_devices())
             if not batch.devices.exists():
                 raise ValidationError(
                     _("No devices match the specified criteria."),
@@ -950,7 +961,7 @@ def dry_run(cls, **kwargs):
         cls._validate_devices_org(devices_list, batch.organization_id)
         if devices_list is not None:
             return {"devices": list(devices_list)}
-        return {"devices": list(batch.resolve_devices())}
+        return {"devices": batch.resolve_devices()}
 
     def _clean_sensitive_info(self):
         if self.type == "change_password":
@@ -973,7 +984,7 @@ def create_commands(self):
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         self.skipped_devices = {}
         device_pks = []
-        for device in self.resolve_devices():
+        for device in self.resolve_devices().iterator():
             device_pks.append(device.pk)
             command = Command(
                 device=device,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 73e3e760b..08562ff33 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@
 import logging
 from copy import deepcopy
 
+from django.utils.formats import date_format
+from django.utils.timezone import localtime
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from ...config.base.channels_consumer import BaseDeviceConsumer
@@ -81,6 +83,10 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
             row = CommandSerializer(command).data
             row["device_name"] = command.device.name
             row["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
+            row["output"] = command.output_preview
+            row["modified"] = date_format(
+                localtime(command.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
+            )
             commands.append(row)
         self.send(
             json.dumps(
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index 8059c39c4..5205fef92 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                             "devices that were skipped during command creation."
                         ),
                         null=True,
-                        verbose_name="Skipped devices",
+                        verbose_name="skipped devices",
                     ),
                 ),
                 (
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index b3aa607a5..c77bfe3fa 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -36,9 +36,9 @@
   width: 100%;
   border-collapse: collapse;
   /* the output column takes whatever these three leave over */
-  --device-column: 22%;
-  --status-column: 10%;
-  --modified-column: 12%;
+  --device-column: 23%;
+  --status-column: 13%;
+  --modified-column: 15%;
 }
 .results-table th:nth-child(1),
 .results-table td:nth-child(1):not(.empty-results) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index 65febc09d..453ef4eca 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -1,357 +1,260 @@
 "use strict";
 
-// admin/change_form.html loads the translation catalog, these fallbacks only
-// keep the page working if it ever fails to load
-var gettext =
-  window.gettext ||
-  function (word) {
-    return word;
-  };
-var ngettext =
-  window.ngettext ||
-  function (singular, plural, count) {
-    return count === 1 ? singular : plural;
-  };
-var interpolate =
-  window.interpolate ||
-  function (fmt, args) {
-    return fmt.replace(/%s/g, function () {
-      return args.shift();
-    });
-  };
+const DEFAULT_PER_PAGE = 20;
+const DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER = "00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000";
 
 django.jQuery(function ($) {
-  if (
-    typeof owControllerApiHost === "undefined" ||
-    typeof batchCommandId === "undefined"
-  ) {
-    return;
-  }
-  const batchCommandWebSocket = new ReconnectingWebSocket(
-    getWebSocketUrl(),
-    null,
-    {
-      debug: false,
-      automaticOpen: false,
-      // The library re-connects if it fails to establish a connection in "timeoutInterval".
-      // On slow internet connections, the default value of "timeoutInterval" will
-      // keep terminating and re-establishing the connection.
-      timeoutInterval: 7000,
-    },
-  );
+  const batchCommandWebSocket = new ReconnectingWebSocket(getWebSocketUrl(), null, {
+    debug: false,
+    automaticOpen: false,
+    timeoutInterval: 7000,
+  });
   batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("open", function () {
-    requestCurrentState(batchCommandWebSocket);
+    requestCurrentState($, batchCommandWebSocket);
   });
-
   batchCommandWebSocket.addEventListener("message", function (e) {
-    let data = JSON.parse(e.data);
-    if (data.model === "Command") {
-      handleCommandMessage($, data.data);
-    } else if (data.model === "BatchCommand") {
-      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.data);
-    } else if (data.model === "BatchState") {
-      handleBatchStateMessage($, data.data);
+    const data = JSON.parse(e.data);
+    if (data.type === "command_update") {
+      handleCommandMessage($, data);
+    } else if (data.type === "batch_status") {
+      handleBatchStatusMessage($, data);
+    } else if (data.type === "batch_state") {
+      handleBatchStateMessage($, data);
     }
   });
-
-  // "automaticOpen: false" above means the socket never connects unless
-  // .open() is called explicitly (mirrors commands.js's initCommandWebSockets).
   batchCommandWebSocket.open();
+});
+
+function getWebSocketUrl() {
+  return `${getWebSocketProtocol()}${owControllerApiHost.host}/ws/controller/batch-command/${batchCommandId}`;
+}
 
-  function getWebSocketUrl() {
-    let protocol = getWebSocketProtocol();
-    return `${protocol}${owControllerApiHost.host}/ws/controller/batch-command/${batchCommandId}`;
+function getWebSocketProtocol() {
+  let protocol = "ws://";
+  if (window.location.protocol === "https:") {
+    protocol = "wss://";
   }
+  return protocol;
+}
 
-  function getWebSocketProtocol() {
-    let protocol = "ws://";
-    if (window.location.protocol === "https:") {
-      protocol = "wss://";
-    }
-    return protocol;
+function requestCurrentState($, websocket) {
+  if (websocket.readyState !== WebSocket.OPEN) {
+    return;
   }
+  try {
+    websocket.send(
+      JSON.stringify({
+        type: "request_current_state",
+        batch_id: batchCommandId,
+        page: getCurrentPage($),
+      }),
+    );
+  } catch (error) {
+    console.error("Error requesting current batch state:", error);
+  }
+}
+
+function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
+  updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
+  renderCommand($, data);
+}
 
-  function requestCurrentState(websocket) {
-    if (websocket.readyState === WebSocket.OPEN) {
-      try {
-        websocket.send(
-          JSON.stringify({
-            type: "request_current_state",
-            batch_id: batchCommandId,
-            // only the page being shown is sent back, a mass command can
-            // target thousands of devices
-            page: getCurrentPage(),
-          }),
-        );
-      } catch (error) {
-        console.error("Error requesting current batch state:", error);
+function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data) {
+  const $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
+  if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
+    $status
+      .removeClass()
+      .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+      .text(data.status_display);
+  }
+  if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
+    const $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
+    if ($list.length) {
+      const $first = $list.contents().first();
+      if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
+        $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
       }
     }
   }
+}
 
-  function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
-    if (data.batch_status) {
-      handleBatchCommandMessage($, data.batch_status);
-    }
-    updateTotals(
-      $,
-      data.batch_status ? data.batch_status.affected_devices : null,
-      data.total_rows,
-    );
-    if (data.commands && Array.isArray(data.commands)) {
-      // These are the results of the page being shown, selected as such by
-      // the server, so they are drawn unconditionally: running them through
-      // the eligibility test used for live messages would reject them, since
-      // an individual result carries no page of its own.
-      data.commands.forEach(function (command) {
-        let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
-        if ($row.length) {
-          updateRow($, $row, command);
-        } else {
-          insertRow($, command);
-        }
-      });
-    }
+function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
+  if (data.batch_status) {
+    handleBatchStatusMessage($, data.batch_status);
   }
-
-  function getActiveStatusFilter() {
-    return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
+  updateTotals(
+    $,
+    data.batch_status ? data.batch_status.affected_devices : null,
+    data.total_rows,
+  );
+  if (!data.commands || !Array.isArray(data.commands)) {
+    return;
   }
+  data.commands.forEach(function (command) {
+    const $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
+    if ($row.length) {
+      updateRow($, $row, command);
+    } else {
+      insertRow($, command);
+    }
+  });
+}
 
-  function getCurrentPage() {
-    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
+function renderCommand($, data) {
+  const $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + data.device);
+  if ($row.length) {
+    updateRow($, $row, data);
+  } else if (belongsOnCurrentPage($, data)) {
+    insertRow($, data);
   }
+  // otherwise the row is on another page, the server renders it there
+}
 
-  function getPerPage() {
-    return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-per-page"), 10) || 20;
+// The server sends the position of newly created results only, the page is
+// worked out here from the size the table was rendered with: this keeps the
+// first page at "per page" rows while the paginator keeps growing.
+function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
+  // with a filter on, the pushed totals are unfiltered and page boundaries
+  // cannot be worked out
+  if (getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+    return false;
   }
-
-  function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
-    // The totals are updated on every message, whatever happens to the DOM
-    // afterwards. They used to be updated at the end of insertRow(), which
-    // returns early once the page is full, so the counter and the paginator
-    // silently froze as soon as the first page filled up.
-    updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
-    renderCommand($, data);
+  if (data.index == null) {
+    return false;
   }
-
-  function renderCommand($, data) {
-    let $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + data.device);
-    if ($row.length) {
-      updateRow($, $row, data);
-    } else if (belongsOnCurrentPage($, data)) {
-      insertRow($, data);
-    }
-    // otherwise the row belongs to another page and is left alone: it will
-    // be rendered by the server when that page is opened
+  const renderedRows = $("#result_list tbody tr").not(":has(td.empty-results)").length;
+  if (renderedRows >= getPerPage($)) {
+    return false;
   }
+  // the paginator is 1-based, so position 0 is on page 1
+  return Math.floor(data.index / getPerPage($)) + 1 === getCurrentPage($);
+}
 
-  /*
-   * The server states the page a result belongs to, and only does so for
-   * results it has just created. Draw it when that is the page being shown
-   * and it still has room, which is what makes the first page stop at "per
-   * page" rows while the paginator keeps growing, without moving the user.
-   *
-   * The page cannot be derived here from the total number of results: the
-   * total describes the whole batch, not the position of this result. A
-   * status change on the third result still arrives with the total of the
-   * batch, and would be placed on the last page instead of being left alone.
-   */
-  function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
-    // with a filter on, the totals pushed over the websocket are unfiltered
-    // and cannot be used to work out page boundaries
-    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
-      return false;
-    }
-    if (data.page == null) {
-      // a status change, not a new result: it is either already displayed
-      // or it lives on another page
-      return false;
-    }
-    let renderedRows = $("#result_list tbody tr").not(
-      ":has(td.empty-results)",
-    ).length;
-    if (renderedRows >= getPerPage()) {
-      return false;
-    }
-    return data.page === getCurrentPage();
+function updateRow($, $row, data) {
+  const activeFilter = getActiveStatusFilter($);
+  if (activeFilter && activeFilter !== data.status) {
+    $row.remove();
+    return;
   }
+  $row
+    .find(".command-status")
+    .removeClass()
+    .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+    .text(data.status_display);
+  $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
+  $row.find("td:last-child").text(data.modified || "-");
+}
 
-  function updateRow($, $row, data) {
-    let activeFilter = getActiveStatusFilter();
-    if (activeFilter && activeFilter !== data.status) {
-      // the row no longer matches the filter the page was rendered with
-      $row.remove();
-      return;
+function insertRow($, data) {
+  $("#result_list td.empty-results").closest("tr").remove();
+  const $tableBody = $("#result_list tbody");
+  const rowClass = $tableBody.find("tr").length % 2 === 0 ? "row1" : "row2";
+  const $row = $("<tr>").attr({
+    id: "batch-command-row-" + data.device,
+    "data-device-pk": data.device,
+    class: rowClass,
+  });
+  $row.append(
+    $("<td>").append(
+      $("<a>")
+        .attr({
+          href: getDeviceChangeUrl($, data.device),
+          class: "device-link",
+        })
+        .text(data.device_name),
+    ),
+  );
+  $row.append(
+    $("<td>").append(
+      $("<span>")
+        .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
+        .text(data.status_display),
+    ),
+  );
+  $row.append(
+    $("<td>")
+      .addClass("command-output")
+      .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
+  );
+  $row.append($("<td>").text(data.modified || "-"));
+  $tableBody.append($row);
+}
+
+function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
+  if (affectedDevices != null) {
+    const $affected = $(".field-affected_devices .readonly");
+    if ($affected.length) {
+      $affected.text(String(affectedDevices));
     }
-    let $status = $row.find(".command-status");
-    $status
-      .removeClass()
-      .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-      .text(data.status_display);
-    $row.find(".command-output pre").text(data.output || "-");
-    $row.find("td:last-child").text(formatTimestamp(data.created));
   }
+  // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
+  if (totalRows == null || getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
+  if ($paginator.length) {
+    $paginator.text(
+      interpolate(ngettext("%s command", "%s commands", totalRows), [totalRows]),
+    );
+  }
+  renderPagination($, totalRows);
+}
 
-  // Only draws the row: whether it should be drawn at all is decided by
-  // belongsOnCurrentPage(), and the totals are updated independently.
-  function insertRow($, data) {
-    // remove the "No commands found." empty state
-    $("#result_list td.empty-results").closest("tr").remove();
-    let $tableBody = $("#result_list tbody");
-    let rowClass = $tableBody.find("tr").length % 2 === 0 ? "row1" : "row2";
-    let $row = $("<tr>").attr({
-      id: "batch-command-row-" + data.device,
-      "data-device-pk": data.device,
-      class: rowClass,
-    });
-    let $deviceTd = $("<td>").append(
+function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
+  const currentPage = getCurrentPage($);
+  const perPage = getPerPage($);
+  const totalPages = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(totalRows / perPage));
+  $(".results-container .pagination").remove();
+  if (totalPages <= 1) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
+  params.delete("page");
+  const baseQuery = params.toString();
+  const buildHref = function (page) {
+    return "?" + (baseQuery ? baseQuery + "&page=" + page : "page=" + page);
+  };
+  const $stepLinks = $("<span>").addClass("step-links");
+  if (currentPage > 1) {
+    $stepLinks.append(
       $("<a>")
-        .attr({ href: getDeviceChangeUrl(data.device), class: "device-link" })
-        .text(data.device_name),
+        .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage - 1))
+        .text(gettext("Previous")),
     );
-    $row.append($deviceTd);
-    $row.append(
-      $("<td>").append(
-        $("<span>")
-          .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-          .text(data.status_display),
+  }
+  $stepLinks.append(
+    $("<span>")
+      .addClass("current-page")
+      .text(
+        gettext("Page") + " " + currentPage + " " + gettext("of") + " " + totalPages,
       ),
+  );
+  if (currentPage < totalPages) {
+    $stepLinks.append(
+      $("<a>")
+        .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage + 1))
+        .text(gettext("Next")),
     );
-    $row.append(
-      $("<td>")
-        .addClass("command-output")
-        .append($("<pre>").text(data.output || "-")),
-    );
-    $row.append($("<td>").text(formatTimestamp(data.created)));
-    $tableBody.append($row);
   }
+  $("<div>").addClass("pagination").append($stepLinks).appendTo(".results-container");
+}
 
-  function getDeviceChangeUrl(devicePk) {
-    let template = $("#result_list").attr("data-device-url");
-    if (!template) {
-      return "#";
-    }
-    return template.replace("00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000", devicePk);
+function getDeviceChangeUrl($, devicePk) {
+  const template = $("#result_list").attr("data-device-url");
+  if (!template) {
+    return "#";
   }
+  return template.replace(DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER, devicePk);
+}
 
-  /*
-   * "affected_devices" counts Command rows, "total_rows" also counts the
-   * skipped devices the table paginates alongside them. They are two
-   * different numbers and drive two different things: passing one for both
-   * makes the page count too small and the last page unreachable whenever a
-   * device was skipped.
-   *
-   * Both are authoritative values recomputed server side on every send,
-   * never a client tracked delta, so a missed or duplicate message cannot
-   * desync them permanently.
-   */
-  function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
-    if (affectedDevices != null) {
-      let $affected = $(".field-affected_devices .readonly");
-      if ($affected.length) {
-        $affected.text(String(affectedDevices));
-      }
-    }
-    if (totalRows == null) {
-      return;
-    }
-    // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
-    if (getActiveStatusFilter()) {
-      return;
-    }
-    let $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
-    if ($paginator.length) {
-      $paginator.text(
-        interpolate(ngettext("%s command", "%s commands", totalRows), [
-          totalRows,
-        ]),
-      );
-    }
-    renderPagination($, totalRows);
-  }
-
-  /*
-   * Rebuilt from scratch rather than patched, so there is a single code
-   * path whether or not the widget was rendered by the server. Patching
-   * only the "Page X of Y" label used to leave the last page without a
-   * "Next" link: at "3 of 3" growing to "3 of 5" the label changed but
-   * there was still no way to move forward.
-   *
-   * This only touches the pagination widget, never the rows: the user is
-   * never navigated automatically, and no page is ever re-fetched.
-   */
-  function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
-    let currentPage = getCurrentPage();
-    let perPage = getPerPage();
-    let totalPages = Math.max(1, Math.ceil(totalRows / perPage));
-    $(".results-container .pagination").remove();
-    if (totalPages <= 1) {
-      return;
-    }
-    let pageLabel =
-      gettext("Page") +
-      " " +
-      currentPage +
-      " " +
-      gettext("of") +
-      " " +
-      totalPages;
-    let params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
-    params.delete("page");
-    let baseQuery = params.toString();
-    let buildHref = function (page) {
-      return "?" + (baseQuery ? baseQuery + "&page=" + page : "page=" + page);
-    };
-    let $stepLinks = $("<span>").addClass("step-links");
-    if (currentPage > 1) {
-      $stepLinks.append(
-        $("<a>")
-          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage - 1))
-          .text(gettext("Previous")),
-      );
-    }
-    $stepLinks.append($("<span>").addClass("current-page").text(pageLabel));
-    if (currentPage < totalPages) {
-      $stepLinks.append(
-        $("<a>")
-          .attr("href", buildHref(currentPage + 1))
-          .text(gettext("Next")),
-      );
-    }
-    $("<div>")
-      .addClass("pagination")
-      .append($stepLinks)
-      .appendTo(".results-container");
-  }
+function getActiveStatusFilter($) {
+  return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
+}
 
-  function handleBatchCommandMessage($, data) {
-    let $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
-    if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
-      $status
-        .removeClass()
-        .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
-        .text(data.status_display);
-    }
-    if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
-      let $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
-      if ($list.length) {
-        let $first = $list.contents().first();
-        if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
-          $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
+function getCurrentPage($) {
+  return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
+}
 
-  function formatTimestamp(iso) {
-    if (!iso) {
-      return "-";
-    }
-    let date = new Date(iso);
-    if (isNaN(date.getTime())) {
-      return "-";
-    }
-    return date.toLocaleString();
-  }
-});
+function getPerPage($) {
+  return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-per-page"), 10) || DEFAULT_PER_PAGE;
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index 320f88f32..6ac818c27 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -1,381 +1,338 @@
-django.jQuery(function ($) {
-  "use strict";
+"use strict";
 
-  // Both steps of the mass command workflow load this file. Each section
-  // returns early when the element it is anchored to is missing, so only
-  // the one belonging to the current page does anything.
-  initExecuteCommandForm($);
-  initConfirmCommandSelection($);
+const COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
+const COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+const EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
+const WIZARD_SELECTS = "#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location";
 
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
-  // Execute command js
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+django.jQuery(function ($) {
+  initExecuteCommandForm($);
+  initDeviceSelection($);
+});
 
-  function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
-    var TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
-    var TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
+function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
+  const $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
+  if (!$typeSelect.length) {
+    return;
+  }
+  const $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
+  const $container = $("#command-input-container");
+  const fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
+  const $hiddenInput = getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName);
+
+  function updateCustomCommandInput() {
+    const command = $.trim($container.find("#id_command").val());
+    $hiddenInput.val(command ? JSON.stringify({ command: command }) : "");
+  }
 
-    var $typeSelect = $("#id_type");
-    if (!$typeSelect.length) return;
+  function updateChangePasswordInput() {
+    const password = $container.find("#id_password").val();
+    const confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password").val();
+    $hiddenInput.val(
+      password && confirmPassword
+        ? JSON.stringify({
+            password: password,
+            confirm_password: confirmPassword,
+          })
+        : "",
+    );
+  }
 
-    var $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
-    var $container = $("#command-input-container");
-    var fieldName = $("#id_input").length
-      ? $("#id_input").attr("name")
-      : "input";
-    var $hiddenInput;
+  function handleTypeChange() {
+    const selected = $typeSelect.val();
+    $container.empty();
+    if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+      renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName);
+      updateCustomCommandInput();
+    } else if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+      renderChangePasswordFields($, $container);
+      updateChangePasswordInput();
+    } else {
+      $hiddenInput.val("");
+    }
+  }
 
-    function ensureHiddenInput() {
-      $hiddenInput = $form.find(
-        'input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]',
-      );
-      if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
-        $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
-        $form.append($hiddenInput);
+  // a new mass command starts here, so the devices unselected in an earlier
+  // one which was configured but never executed are dropped
+  clearAbandonedExclusions();
+
+  $container.on("input", "#id_command", updateCustomCommandInput);
+  $container.on(
+    "input",
+    "#id_password, #id_confirm_password",
+    updateChangePasswordInput,
+  );
+  $typeSelect.on("change", handleTypeChange);
+  handleTypeChange();
+
+  $(WIZARD_SELECTS).select2({
+    theme: "default",
+    placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
+    allowClear: true,
+    width: "resolve",
+  });
+
+  // admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back
+  // restores the form values after select2 has rendered its labels
+  $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
+    $(WIZARD_SELECTS).each(function () {
+      const $field = $(this);
+      if ($field.data("select2")) {
+        $field.trigger("change.select2");
       }
+    });
+    if (!$typeSelect.val()) {
+      return;
     }
-
-    function clearContainer() {
-      $container.empty();
+    handleTypeChange();
+    let data = null;
+    try {
+      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
+    } catch (error) {
+      data = null;
     }
-
-    function syncCustom() {
-      var val = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
-      val = $.trim(val);
-      $hiddenInput.val(val ? JSON.stringify({ command: val }) : "");
+    if (data && data.command) {
+      $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
     }
-
-    function syncPassword() {
-      var pw = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-password").val();
-      var cp = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-confirm_password").val();
-      $hiddenInput.val(
-        pw && cp ? JSON.stringify({ password: pw, confirm_password: cp }) : "",
+  });
+
+  $("#review-command-btn").on("click", function () {
+    clearFieldErrors($);
+    const type = $typeSelect.val();
+    let hasError = false;
+    if (!type) {
+      showFieldError(
+        $typeSelect.closest(".form-row"),
+        gettext("This field is required."),
       );
+      hasError = true;
     }
-
-    function buildCustomField() {
-      var $wrapper = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-      var $fc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-      $fc.append(
-        '<label for="bce-dynamic-command" class="required">' +
-          gettext("Command") +
-          "</label>",
+    if (!$.trim($("#id_label").val() || "")) {
+      showFieldError(
+        $("#id_label").closest(".form-row"),
+        gettext("This field is required."),
       );
-      $fc.append(
-        '<input type="text" id="bce-dynamic-command" name="' +
-          fieldName +
-          '" class="vTextField">',
-      );
-      $wrapper.append($fc);
-      $wrapper.append(
-        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-command_helptext"><div>' +
-          gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
-          "</div></div>",
-      );
-      $container.append($wrapper);
+      hasError = true;
     }
-
-    function buildChangePasswordField() {
-      var $pwRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-      var $pwFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-      $pwFc.append(
-        '<label for="bce-dynamic-password" class="required">' +
-          gettext("New password") +
-          "</label>",
-      );
-      $pwFc.append(
-        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-      );
-      $pwRow.append($pwFc);
-      $pwRow.append(
-        '<div class="help" id="bce-dynamic-password_helptext"><div>' +
-          gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
-          "</div></div>",
-      );
-      $container.append($pwRow);
-
-      var $cpRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-      var $cpFc = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-      $cpFc.append(
-        '<label for="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" class="required">' +
-          gettext("Confirm password") +
-          "</label>",
-      );
-      $cpFc.append(
-        '<input type="password" id="bce-dynamic-confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-      );
-      $cpRow.append($cpFc);
-      $container.append($cpRow);
-    }
-
-    function onTypeChange() {
-      var selected = $typeSelect.val();
-      clearContainer();
-
-      if (selected === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-        buildCustomField();
-        syncCustom();
-      } else if (selected === TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-        buildChangePasswordField();
-        syncPassword();
-      } else {
-        $hiddenInput.val("");
-      }
-    }
-
-    // Reaching this page starts a new mass command, so drop the device
-    // selections of any earlier one the user configured but never executed:
-    // they are namespaced per command and would otherwise pile up for as
-    // long as the browser tab lives.
-    discardAbandonedSelections();
-
-    ensureHiddenInput();
-    $container.on("input", "#bce-dynamic-command", syncCustom);
-    $container.on(
-      "input",
-      "#bce-dynamic-password, #bce-dynamic-confirm_password",
-      syncPassword,
-    );
-    $typeSelect.on("change", onTypeChange);
-    onTypeChange();
-
-    $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").select2({
-      theme: "default",
-      placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
-      allowClear: true,
-      width: "resolve",
-    });
-
-    // Admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back to
-    // this page re-fetches it and the browser restores the previous form
-    // values after select2 has already been initialized, leaving the rendered
-    // labels stale. Re-sync the select2 display on every pageshow event.
-    $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
-      $("#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location").each(
-        function () {
-          var $field = $(this);
-          if ($field.data("select2")) $field.trigger("change.select2");
-        },
-      );
-      if ($typeSelect.val()) {
-        onTypeChange();
-        var data = null;
-        try {
-          data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
-        } catch (e) {
-          data = null;
-        }
-        if (data && data.command) {
-          $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val(data.command);
-        }
+    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
+      const command = $container.find("#id_command").val();
+      if (!$.trim(command || "")) {
+        showFieldError(
+          $container.find(".form-row").first(),
+          gettext("This field is required."),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
       }
-    });
-
-    function clearAllErrors() {
-      $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
-      $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
     }
-
-    function showFieldError($row, message) {
-      $row.addClass("errors");
-      $row.prepend('<ul class="errorlist"><li>' + message + "</li></ul>");
+    if (!hasError) {
+      $form.submit();
     }
+  });
+}
 
-    var $reviewBtn = $("#review-command-btn");
-    if ($reviewBtn.length) {
-      $reviewBtn.on("click", function () {
-        clearAllErrors();
-
-        var type = $typeSelect.val();
-        var $typeRow = $typeSelect.closest(".form-row");
-        var hasError = false;
-
-        if (!type) {
-          showFieldError($typeRow, gettext("This field is required."));
-          hasError = true;
-        }
-
-        var label = $("#id_label").val();
-        if (!label || !$.trim(label)) {
-          showFieldError(
-            $("#id_label").closest(".form-row"),
-            gettext("This field is required."),
-          );
-          hasError = true;
-        }
-
-        if (type === TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-          var cmd = $container.find("#bce-dynamic-command").val();
-          if (!cmd || !$.trim(cmd)) {
-            showFieldError(
-              $container.find(".form-row").first(),
-              gettext("This field is required."),
-            );
-            hasError = true;
-          }
-        }
-
-        if (hasError) return;
-
-        $form.submit();
-      });
-    }
+function initDeviceSelection($) {
+  const $form = $("#execute-form");
+  if (!$form.length) {
+    return;
   }
-
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
-  // Confirm command js
-  ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
-
-  /*
-   * Device selection on the confirm page.
-   *
-   * Every device matched by the targets chosen on the first step starts
-   * selected, unselecting one adds it to the "excluded" list. That list is
-   * kept both in a hidden field, submitted when the command is executed, and
-   * in sessionStorage, because turning the page of the device table is an
-   * ordinary page load: without it, unselecting a device on the first page
-   * would be forgotten as soon as the second page is opened.
-   */
-  var STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
-
-  function discardAbandonedSelections() {
-    try {
-      var storage = window.sessionStorage;
-      for (var i = storage.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-        var key = storage.key(i);
-        if (key && key.indexOf(STORAGE_PREFIX) === 0) {
-          storage.removeItem(key);
-        }
-      }
-    } catch (e) {
-      // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable
-    }
+  // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so the key carries the
+  // token of this mass command to stop a new one inheriting its exclusions
+  const storageKey = EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
+  const $table = $("#result_list");
+  const $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
+  const $count = $("#selected-count");
+  const $button = $("#execute-button");
+  const totalDevices = parseInt($form.data("total-devices"), 10) || 0;
+  const excluded = getStoredExclusions($, storageKey);
+
+  function updateSelectionSummary() {
+    const pks = Object.keys(excluded);
+    const selected = Math.max(totalDevices - pks.length, 0);
+    $excludedField.val(pks.join(","));
+    setStoredExclusions(storageKey, pks);
+    $count.text(selected);
+    $button.text(
+      interpolate(ngettext("Execute on %s device", "Execute on %s devices", selected), [
+        selected,
+      ]),
+    );
+    $button.prop("disabled", selected === 0);
+    updateSelectAllCheckbox();
   }
 
-  function initConfirmCommandSelection($) {
-    var $form = $("#bc-execute-form");
-    if (!$form.length) return;
-
-    // Namespaced by the token the server issues for this mass command:
-    // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so a shared key would
-    // make a new command inherit the devices unselected by the previous one.
-    var STORAGE_KEY = STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
-    var $table = $("#result_list");
-    var $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
-    var $count = $("#bc-selected-count");
-    var $button = $("#bc-execute-button");
-    var totalDevices = parseInt($form.data("total-devices"), 10) || 0;
-    var excluded = readStoredExclusions();
+  function updateSelectAllCheckbox() {
+    const $checkboxes = $table.find(".device-checkbox");
+    $("#select-all-devices").prop(
+      "checked",
+      $checkboxes.length > 0 &&
+        $checkboxes.filter(":checked").length === $checkboxes.length,
+    );
+  }
 
-    function readStoredExclusions() {
-      var stored = {};
-      try {
-        var raw = window.sessionStorage.getItem(STORAGE_KEY);
-        $.each(raw ? JSON.parse(raw) : [], function (index, pk) {
-          stored[pk] = true;
-        });
-      } catch (e) {
-        // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable:
-        // the selection is then simply not carried across pages
-      }
-      return stored;
+  $table.on("change", ".device-checkbox", function () {
+    const pk = $(this).val();
+    if (this.checked) {
+      delete excluded[pk];
+    } else {
+      excluded[pk] = true;
     }
-
-    function storeExclusions(pks) {
-      try {
-        window.sessionStorage.setItem(STORAGE_KEY, JSON.stringify(pks));
-      } catch (e) {
-        // see readStoredExclusions()
+    updateSelectionSummary();
+  });
+
+  // only the devices listed on the current page are toggled, the ones the
+  // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
+  $table.on("change", "#select-all-devices", function () {
+    const checked = this.checked;
+    $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
+      const $checkbox = $(this);
+      if ($checkbox.prop("checked") !== checked) {
+        $checkbox.prop("checked", checked).trigger("change");
       }
-    }
+    });
+  });
+
+  $form.on("submit", function () {
+    removeStoredExclusions(storageKey);
+    // guards against a double click creating two mass commands
+    $button.prop("disabled", true);
+  });
+
+  renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table);
+  restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded);
+  updateSelectionSummary();
+}
+
+function getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName) {
+  let $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
+  if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
+    $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
+    $form.append($hiddenInput);
+  }
+  return $hiddenInput;
+}
+
+function renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName) {
+  const $row = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+  const $flexContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+  $flexContainer.append(
+    '<label for="id_command" class="required">' + gettext("Command") + "</label>",
+  );
+  $flexContainer.append(
+    '<input type="text" id="id_command" name="' + fieldName + '" class="vTextField">',
+  );
+  $row.append($flexContainer);
+  $row.append(
+    '<div class="help" id="id_command_helptext"><div>' +
+      gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
+      "</div></div>",
+  );
+  $container.append($row);
+}
+
+function renderChangePasswordFields($, $container) {
+  const $passwordRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+  const $passwordContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+  $passwordContainer.append(
+    '<label for="id_password" class="required">' + gettext("New password") + "</label>",
+  );
+  $passwordContainer.append(
+    '<input type="password" id="id_password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+  );
+  $passwordRow.append($passwordContainer);
+  $passwordRow.append(
+    '<div class="help" id="id_password_helptext"><div>' +
+      gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
+      "</div></div>",
+  );
+  $container.append($passwordRow);
+
+  const $confirmRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
+  const $confirmContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
+  $confirmContainer.append(
+    '<label for="id_confirm_password" class="required">' +
+      gettext("Confirm password") +
+      "</label>",
+  );
+  $confirmContainer.append(
+    '<input type="password" id="id_confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
+  );
+  $confirmRow.append($confirmContainer);
+  $container.append($confirmRow);
+}
+
+function renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table) {
+  const $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
+  if (!$header.length || $header.find("#select-all-devices").length) {
+    return;
+  }
+  $header.append(
+    $("<input>").attr({
+      type: "checkbox",
+      id: "select-all-devices",
+      title: gettext("Select all devices on this page"),
+    }),
+  );
+}
+
+// rows are rendered selected by the server, untick the ones excluded earlier
+function restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded) {
+  $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
+    const $checkbox = $(this);
+    $checkbox.prop("checked", !excluded[$checkbox.val()]);
+  });
+}
+
+// exclusions are kept in sessionStorage because turning a page of the device
+// table is an ordinary page load, which would otherwise forget them
+function getStoredExclusions($, storageKey) {
+  const stored = {};
+  try {
+    const raw = window.sessionStorage.getItem(storageKey);
+    $.each(raw ? JSON.parse(raw) : [], function (index, pk) {
+      stored[pk] = true;
+    });
+  } catch (error) {
+    // private browsing modes can make sessionStorage unavailable
+  }
+  return stored;
+}
+
+function setStoredExclusions(storageKey, pks) {
+  try {
+    window.sessionStorage.setItem(storageKey, JSON.stringify(pks));
+  } catch (error) {
+    // see getStoredExclusions()
+  }
+}
 
-    function clearExclusions() {
-      try {
-        window.sessionStorage.removeItem(STORAGE_KEY);
-      } catch (e) {
-        // see readStoredExclusions()
+function removeStoredExclusions(storageKey) {
+  try {
+    window.sessionStorage.removeItem(storageKey);
+  } catch (error) {
+    // see getStoredExclusions()
+  }
+}
+
+function clearAbandonedExclusions() {
+  try {
+    const storage = window.sessionStorage;
+    for (let i = storage.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
+      const key = storage.key(i);
+      if (key && key.indexOf(EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX) === 0) {
+        storage.removeItem(key);
       }
     }
+  } catch (error) {
+    // see getStoredExclusions()
+  }
+}
 
-    // rows are rendered selected by the server, restore the ones which were
-    // unselected on a previously visited page
-    function restoreCheckboxes() {
-      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
-        var $checkbox = $(this);
-        $checkbox.prop("checked", !excluded[$checkbox.val()]);
-      });
-    }
-
-    function refresh() {
-      var pks = Object.keys(excluded);
-      var selected = Math.max(totalDevices - pks.length, 0);
-      $excludedField.val(pks.join(","));
-      storeExclusions(pks);
-      $count.text(selected);
-      $button.text(
-        interpolate(
-          ngettext("Execute on %s device", "Execute on %s devices", selected),
-          [selected],
-        ),
-      );
-      $button.prop("disabled", selected === 0);
-      refreshSelectAll();
-    }
-
-    function refreshSelectAll() {
-      var $checkboxes = $table.find(".bc-select-device");
-      var $checked = $checkboxes.filter(":checked");
-      $("#bc-select-all").prop(
-        "checked",
-        $checkboxes.length > 0 && $checked.length === $checkboxes.length,
-      );
-    }
-
-    // the changelist has no header checkbox of its own once the admin
-    // actions are disabled, so add one for the current page
-    function addSelectAllCheckbox() {
-      var $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
-      if (!$header.length || $header.find("#bc-select-all").length) return;
-      $header.append(
-        $("<input>").attr({
-          type: "checkbox",
-          id: "bc-select-all",
-          title: gettext("Select all devices on this page"),
-        }),
-      );
-    }
-
-    $table.on("change", ".bc-select-device", function () {
-      var pk = $(this).val();
-      if (this.checked) {
-        delete excluded[pk];
-      } else {
-        excluded[pk] = true;
-      }
-      refresh();
-    });
-
-    // only the devices listed on the current page are affected: devices the
-    // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
-    $table.on("change", "#bc-select-all", function () {
-      var checked = this.checked;
-      $table.find(".bc-select-device").each(function () {
-        var $checkbox = $(this);
-        if ($checkbox.prop("checked") !== checked) {
-          $checkbox.prop("checked", checked).trigger("change");
-        }
-      });
-    });
-
-    $form.on("submit", function () {
-      clearExclusions();
-      // guards against a double click creating two mass commands, the
-      // server discards the second request as well
-      $button.prop("disabled", true);
-    });
+function clearFieldErrors($) {
+  $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
+  $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
+}
 
-    addSelectAllCheckbox();
-    restoreCheckboxes();
-    refresh();
-  }
-});
+function showFieldError($row, message) {
+  $row.addClass("errors");
+  $row.prepend('<ul class="errorlist"><li>' + message + "</li></ul>");
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index d3bb2c54a..32c8f9441 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
         <td class="command-output">
           <pre>{{ command.output|default:"-" }}</pre>
         </td>
-        <td>{{ command.modified|date|default:"-" }}</td>
+        <td>{{ command.modified|date:"DATETIME_FORMAT"|default:"-" }}</td>
       </tr>
       {% empty %}
       <tr>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py b/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py
index b3f0d3772..f253aeea8 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/geo/estimated_location/tests/tests.py
@@ -727,9 +727,10 @@ def _verify_location_details(device, mocked_response):
             old_location = device2.devicelocation.location
             device2.last_ip = "172.217.22.10"
             device2.save()
-            # 3 queries related to notifications cleanup
+            # 3 queries related to notifications cleanup,
+            # 1 to set BatchCommand.location to NULL when the location is deleted
             device2.refresh_from_db()
-            with self.assertNumQueries(16):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(17):
                 manage_estimated_locations(device2.pk, device2.last_ip)
             mock_info.assert_called_once_with(
                 f"Estimated location saved successfully for {device2.pk}"
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index c0f67afd1..675ddac9e 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                         blank=True,
                         null=True,
                         default=dict,
-                        verbose_name="Skipped devices",
+                        verbose_name="skipped devices",
                         help_text=(
                             "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for "
                             "devices that were skipped during command creation."

From 08c740aa601b869a583f4bc6fa71c4a8e82e935b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 18 Aug 2026 19:56:29 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 09/13] [fix] Addressed coderabbit comments

- Use _registry instead of get_model_admin(), which is Django 5.0+
  while the CI matrix still runs Django 4.2
- Validate the UUID request parameters before they reach the queryset
  filters, a malformed id returned a 500
- Log the ValidationError swallowed when resolving the wizard targets
- Store the device name and error in skipped_devices and cap the admin
  field to a count, a per reason breakdown and ten devices, a batch
  skipping thousands of devices rendered one line each
- Render the skipped devices live: send bounded counts and previews on
  batch_status and window the skipped rows into the paginated page of
  the websocket resync
- Use gettext instead of gettext_lazy in the websocket payload, the
  lazy proxy could not be serialized by the channel layer
- Drop the page parameter from the change page filter links so that
  filtering restarts from the first page
- Keep deleted devices in the skipped rows of the unfiltered table,
  the field and the table disagreed on the count
- Add an accessible label to the device checkboxes of the confirm page
- Validate the change password fields inline, the form is submitted
  with novalidate so the length was never checked
- Restore the wizard values when going back from the confirm page
- Hide the command types the organization is not allowed to run from
  non superusers, every other entry point already filtered them
- Extract the repeated field markup of the execute page into an include
  and use SimpleNamespace for the status filter spec
- Use the locale aware format for the "Triggered by" timestamp
- Drop the full stop from the two validation messages shown in the
  skipped devices list
- Remove three redundant queries from the execute endpoint: the devices
  check of an unsaved batch, the second count of the websocket payload
  and the emptiness check after devices.set()
- Return an empty command queryset for the "skipped" status filter,
  it listed every command of the batch on top of the skipped devices
- Drop the command input from the batch websocket payloads and mask it
  in the admin, the change_password plaintext was exposed until the
  celery task cleaned it
- Reuse the affected devices count for the total rows, total_devices
  ran the same COUNT a second time on every command save
- Submit the execute form from its submit event so that pressing Enter
  runs the same validation as the button
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 125 ++++++++++++------
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  16 ++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  52 ++++++--
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |  24 +++-
 ...0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   5 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   |   5 +-
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     |  84 +++++++++---
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   |  66 +++++----
 .../batch_command_change_form.html            |  14 +-
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |   4 +-
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        |  80 +----------
 .../connection/batch_command/form_row.html    |  12 ++
 .../connection/tests/test_api.py              |  14 +-
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           |  18 +--
 ...0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py |   5 +-
 15 files changed, 309 insertions(+), 215 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 782cb13f4..2862b8844 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,12 +1,13 @@
+import logging
 from datetime import timedelta
 from types import SimpleNamespace
-from uuid import uuid4
+from uuid import UUID, uuid4
 
 import reversion
 import swapper
 from django import forms
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
-from django.core.exceptions import PermissionDenied, ValidationError
+from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist, PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
 from django.db.models import Count
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
@@ -27,6 +28,8 @@
 from .schema import schema
 from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
 
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
 Credentials = swapper.load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 DeviceConnection = swapper.load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
@@ -96,6 +99,15 @@ def __init__(self, *args, request=None, **kwargs):
             self.fields[field_name].queryset = self.fields[field_name].queryset.filter(
                 organization_id__in=organization_ids
             )
+        allowed_commands = {}
+        for organization_id in organization_ids:
+            allowed_commands.update(
+                dict(Command.get_org_allowed_commands(organization_id=organization_id))
+            )
+        empty_choices = [
+            choice for choice in self.fields["type"].choices if not choice[0]
+        ]
+        self.fields["type"].choices = empty_choices + list(allowed_commands.items())
 
     def clean(self):
         cleaned_data = super().clean()
@@ -368,8 +380,10 @@ def get_queryset(self, request):
     @admin.display(description="")
     def select_device(self, obj):
         return format_html(
-            '<input type="checkbox" class="device-checkbox" value="{}" checked>',
+            '<input type="checkbox" class="device-checkbox" value="{}"'
+            ' aria-label="{}" checked>',
             obj.pk,
+            _("Include {}").format(obj.name),
         )
 
 
@@ -415,9 +429,9 @@ class BatchCommandAdmin(MultitenantAdminMixin, ReadOnlyAdmin):
         "type",
         "formatted_input",
         "affected_devices",
+        "display_skipped_devices",
         "group",
         "location",
-        "display_skipped_devices",
         "created",
         "modified",
     ]
@@ -472,6 +486,7 @@ def execute_command_view(self, request):
                     f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
                 )
         else:
+            request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
             form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(request=request)
         context = {
             **self.admin_site.each_context(request),
@@ -513,7 +528,8 @@ def get_device_admin(self, devices):
         openwisp-monitoring replaces that registration to add its own.
         Resolved per request, when the registration is final.
         """
-        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        # TODO: replace _registry with get_model_admin once Django 4.2 is dropped
+        registered = self.admin_site._registry[Device].__class__
         # the mixin comes first so that its attributes win over the
         # registered admin's
         device_admin_class = type(
@@ -529,7 +545,8 @@ def get_device_changelist_template(self):
         is where other modules load the assets their columns need. Read from
         the class: django-import-export rewrites it on the instance.
         """
-        registered = self.admin_site.get_model_admin(Device).__class__
+        # TODO: replace _registry with get_model_admin once Django 4.2 is dropped
+        registered = self.admin_site._registry[Device].__class__
         return getattr(registered, "change_list_template", None) or (
             "admin/change_list.html"
         )
@@ -555,10 +572,15 @@ def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
                 group_id=wizard.get("group_id"),
                 location_id=wizard.get("location_id"),
             )["devices"]
-        except ValidationError:
-            # a wizard left in the session while its group or location moved
-            # to another organization: nothing matches, and execute() reports
-            # it through its usual error path
+        except (ObjectDoesNotExist, ValidationError) as error:
+            logger.warning(
+                "Failed to resolve devices for mass command wizard"
+                " (organization_id=%s, group_id=%s, location_id=%s): %s",
+                wizard.get("organization_id"),
+                wizard.get("group_id"),
+                wizard.get("location_id"),
+                error,
+            )
             return Device.objects.none()
         if not request.user.is_superuser:
             devices = devices.filter(
@@ -618,6 +640,8 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         }
         try:
             batch = BatchCommand.execute(**kwargs)
+        except ObjectDoesNotExist:
+            return self._restart(request)
         except ValidationError as error:
             # put the wizard back so the user can correct the selection
             request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
@@ -632,9 +656,19 @@ def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
             f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_change", batch.pk
         )
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def _get_uuid(value):
+        try:
+            return str(UUID(str(value)))
+        except (AttributeError, TypeError, ValueError):
+            return ""
+
     @staticmethod
     def _get_pk_list(source, name):
-        return [pk for pk in source.get(name, "").split(",") if pk]
+        pks = (
+            BatchCommandAdmin._get_uuid(pk) for pk in source.get(name, "").split(",")
+        )
+        return [pk for pk in pks if pk]
 
     def get_readonly_fields(self, request, obj=None):
         fields = super().get_readonly_fields(request, obj)
@@ -687,7 +721,9 @@ def colored_status(self, obj):
     def formatted_input(self, obj):
         if not obj.input:
             return "-"
-        return obj.input.get("command", obj.input)
+        if obj.type == "change_password":
+            return "********"
+        return self._describe_input(obj.input) or "-"
 
     formatted_input.short_description = _("input")
 
@@ -711,16 +747,18 @@ def _get_skipped_devices(self, obj):
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
-        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
-        count = len(obj.skipped_devices)
-        lines = [str(count)]
-        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-            device = devices.get(pk_str)
-            name = device.name if device else _("Deleted ({})").format(pk_str)
-            lines.append(format_html("{}: {}", name, ", ".join(errors)))
+        rows = obj.get_skipped_preview()
+        lines = [str(len(obj.skipped_devices))]
+        lines += [
+            format_html("{}: {}", row["device_name"], row["output"]) for row in rows
+        ]
+        if len(rows) < len(obj.skipped_devices):
+            lines.insert(-1, "\u2026")
         return format_html(
-            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}</div>',
+            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}'
+            '<p class="skipped-devices-note">{}</p></div>',
             format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
+            _("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device."),
         )
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("skipped devices")
@@ -736,6 +774,7 @@ def _build_filter_specs(
     ):
         filter_specs = []
         params = request.GET.copy()
+        params.pop("page", None)
 
         def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             q = params.copy()
@@ -758,11 +797,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
                 _make_choice(current_status, display_name, "status", status_value)
             )
 
-        class StatusFilter:
-            title = _("status")
-            choices = status_choices
-
-        filter_specs.append(StatusFilter())
+        filter_specs.append(SimpleNamespace(title=_("status"), choices=status_choices))
 
         # Location filter
         location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
@@ -828,7 +863,7 @@ def _build_related_filter(self, title, param_name, current_value, qs, make_choic
     def _command_row(command):
         return {
             "device_name": command.device.name,
-            "device_pk": command.device.pk,
+            "device": command.device.pk,
             "status": command.status,
             "status_display": command.get_status_display(),
             "output": command.output_preview,
@@ -866,16 +901,18 @@ def _get_active_filters(self, request):
         return {
             "q": request.GET.get("q", ""),
             "status": request.GET.get("status", ""),
-            "location_id": request.GET.get("location_id", ""),
-            "group_id": request.GET.get("group_id", ""),
-            "organization_id": request.GET.get("organization_id", ""),
+            "location_id": self._get_uuid(request.GET.get("location_id", "")),
+            "group_id": self._get_uuid(request.GET.get("group_id", "")),
+            "organization_id": self._get_uuid(request.GET.get("organization_id", "")),
         }
 
     def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
+        status = filters["status"]
+        if status == "skipped":
+            return qs.none()
         if filters["q"]:
             qs = qs.filter(device__name__icontains=filters["q"])
-        status = filters["status"]
-        if status and status != "skipped":
+        if status:
             qs = qs.filter(status=status)
         if filters["location_id"]:
             qs = qs.filter(device__devicelocation__location_id=filters["location_id"])
@@ -900,9 +937,19 @@ def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
             device_locations = None
         devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
         rows = []
-        for pk_str, errors in obj.skipped_devices.items():
+        for pk_str, skipped in obj.skipped_devices.items():
             device = devices.get(pk_str)
             if not device:
+                if not any(
+                    (
+                        filters["organization_id"],
+                        filters["group_id"],
+                        location_id,
+                    )
+                ) and (
+                    not filters["q"] or filters["q"].lower() in skipped["name"].lower()
+                ):
+                    rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
                 continue
             if (
                 filters["organization_id"]
@@ -913,19 +960,9 @@ def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
                 continue
             if device_locations is not None and pk_str not in device_locations:
                 continue
-            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in device.name.lower():
+            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in skipped["name"].lower():
                 continue
-            rows.append(
-                {
-                    "device_name": device.name,
-                    "device_pk": pk_str,
-                    "status": "skipped",
-                    "status_display": _("skipped"),
-                    "output": ", ".join(errors),
-                    "modified": None,
-                    "is_skipped": True,
-                }
-            )
+            rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
         return rows
 
     def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 5fb187972..37dbcfc7c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -78,16 +78,18 @@ def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
 
+        if created and not instance.batch_command_id:
+            return
         channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
         if not created:
-            # Trigger websocket message only when command status is updated
             async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
                 f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
                 {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
             )
         if instance.batch_command_id:
-            batch_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
+            batch_data = dict(serialized_data)
+            batch_data.pop("input", None)
             batch_data["device_name"] = instance.device.name
             batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
             batch_data["output"] = instance.output_preview
@@ -98,7 +100,9 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
             batch = instance.batch_command
             affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
             batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-            batch_data["total_rows"] = batch.total_devices
+            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
+                batch.skipped_devices or {}
+            )
             if created:
                 batch_data["index"] = affected_devices - 1
             async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
@@ -114,6 +118,12 @@ def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
         batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
         batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
+        affected_devices = instance.affected_devices
+        skipped_count = len(batch_data.pop("skipped_devices", None) or {})
+        batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+        batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + skipped_count
+        batch_data["skipped_count"] = skipped_count
+        batch_data["skipped_preview"] = instance.get_skipped_preview()
         async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
             f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
             {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 0fab4bd63..65916dbac 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -516,7 +516,7 @@ def __str__(self):
 
     def clean(self):
         if self.device.is_fully_deactivated():
-            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device is deactivated.")})
+            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device is deactivated")})
         self._verify_command_type_allowed()
         self._verify_connection()
         try:
@@ -527,7 +527,7 @@ def clean(self):
     def _verify_connection(self):
         """Raises validation error if device has no connection and credentials."""
         if self.device and not self.device.deviceconnection_set.exists():
-            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device has no credentials assigned.")})
+            raise ValidationError({"device": _("Device has no credentials assigned")})
 
     def _verify_command_type_allowed(self):
         """Raises validation error if command type is not allowed."""
@@ -804,8 +804,8 @@ class AbstractBatchCommand(ValidateOrgMixin, TimeStampedEditableModel):
         default=dict,
         verbose_name=_("skipped devices"),
         help_text=_(
-            "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for devices "
-            "that were skipped during command creation."
+            "Maps device UUIDs to the name of the device and the validation "
+            "error that caused it to be skipped during command creation."
         ),
     )
 
@@ -821,6 +821,27 @@ def __str__(self):
     def total_devices(self):
         return self.affected_devices + len(self.skipped_devices or {})
 
+    @staticmethod
+    def build_skipped_row(device_pk, skipped):
+        return {
+            "device": str(device_pk),
+            "device_name": skipped["name"],
+            "status": "skipped",
+            "status_display": gettext("skipped"),
+            "output": skipped["error"],
+            "modified": None,
+            "is_skipped": True,
+        }
+
+    def get_skipped_rows(self, start=0, end=None):
+        items = list((self.skipped_devices or {}).items())[start:end]
+        return [self.build_skipped_row(pk, skipped) for pk, skipped in items]
+
+    def get_skipped_preview(self, limit=10):
+        if len(self.skipped_devices or {}) <= limit:
+            return self.get_skipped_rows()
+        return self.get_skipped_rows(end=2) + self.get_skipped_rows(start=-1)
+
     @property
     def affected_devices(self):
         return self.batch_commands.count()
@@ -857,7 +878,7 @@ def _validate_org_relations(self):
             return
         self._validate_org_relation("group", field_error="group")
         self._validate_org_relation("location", field_error="location")
-        if self.pk and self.devices.exists():
+        if not self._state.adding and self.devices.exists():
             org_mismatch = self.devices.exclude(organization=self.organization).exists()
             if org_mismatch:
                 raise ValidationError(
@@ -927,12 +948,13 @@ def execute(cls, **kwargs):
         with transaction.atomic():
             batch.full_clean()
             batch.save()
-            if devices_list is not None:
+            if devices_list is None:
+                devices_list = list(batch.resolve_devices())
                 batch.devices.set(devices_list)
-                batch._validate_org_relations()
             else:
-                batch.devices.set(batch.resolve_devices())
-            if not batch.devices.exists():
+                batch.devices.set(devices_list)
+                batch._validate_org_relations()
+            if not devices_list:
                 raise ValidationError(
                     _("No devices match the specified criteria."),
                 )
@@ -979,7 +1001,8 @@ def create_commands(self):
         )
         if not updated:
             return
-        self.refresh_from_db(fields=["status"])
+        self.status = "in-progress"
+        self.save(update_fields=["status"])
         Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         self.skipped_devices = {}
@@ -996,9 +1019,12 @@ def create_commands(self):
                 command.full_clean()
                 command.save()
             except ValidationError as e:
-                self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = (
-                    e.messages if hasattr(e, "messages") else [str(e)]
-                )
+                self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = {
+                    "name": device.name,
+                    "error": (
+                        ", ".join(e.messages) if hasattr(e, "messages") else str(e)
+                    ),
+                }
                 logger.warning(
                     "Skipping device %s for batch %s: %s",
                     device.pk,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 08562ff33..9b2ac78f6 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -51,7 +51,11 @@ def receive(self, text_data):
         try:
             content = json.loads(text_data)
         except ValueError:
-            logger.warning("Received a websocket message which is not valid JSON")
+            content = None
+        if not isinstance(content, dict):
+            logger.warning(
+                "Received a websocket message which is not a valid JSON object"
+            )
             return
         message_type = content.get("type")
         if message_type == self.current_state_message:
@@ -70,17 +74,26 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
             return
         batch_status = BatchCommandSerializer(batch).data
         batch_status["status_display"] = batch.get_status_display()
-        batch_status["affected_devices"] = batch.affected_devices
+        commands_count = batch.batch_commands.count()
+        batch_status["affected_devices"] = commands_count
+        batch_status["skipped_count"] = len(
+            batch_status.pop("skipped_devices", None) or {}
+        )
+        batch_status["skipped_preview"] = batch.get_skipped_preview()
         try:
             page = max(int(page), 1)
         except (TypeError, ValueError):
             page = 1
         start = (page - 1) * self.per_page
         end = start + self.per_page
-        page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[start:end]
+        commands_end = min(end, commands_count)
+        page_commands = batch.batch_commands.select_related("device")[
+            start:commands_end
+        ]
         commands = []
         for command in page_commands:
             row = CommandSerializer(command).data
+            row.pop("input", None)
             row["device_name"] = command.device.name
             row["status_display"] = command.get_status_display()
             row["output"] = command.output_preview
@@ -88,13 +101,16 @@ def _handle_current_state_request(self, page=None):
                 localtime(command.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
             )
             commands.append(row)
+        commands += batch.get_skipped_rows(
+            max(0, start - commands_count), max(0, end - commands_count)
+        )
         self.send(
             json.dumps(
                 {
                     "type": "batch_state",
                     "batch_status": batch_status,
                     "commands": commands,
-                    "total_rows": batch.total_devices,
+                    "total_rows": commands_count + batch_status["skipped_count"],
                 }
             )
         )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index 5205fef92..e63a48708 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/migrations/0011_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -94,8 +94,9 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                         blank=True,
                         default=dict,
                         help_text=(
-                            "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for "
-                            "devices that were skipped during command creation."
+                            "Maps device UUIDs to the name of the device and the "
+                            "validation error that caused it to be skipped during "
+                            "command creation."
                         ),
                         null=True,
                         verbose_name="skipped devices",
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index c77bfe3fa..369101406 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@
   border-collapse: collapse;
   /* the output column takes whatever these three leave over */
   --device-column: 23%;
-  --status-column: 13%;
+  --status-column: 15%;
   --modified-column: 15%;
 }
 .results-table th:nth-child(1),
@@ -117,6 +117,9 @@
 .skipped-devices-list {
   line-height: 1.7;
 }
+.skipped-devices-note {
+  margin: 1em 0 0;
+}
 .field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
   padding: 0;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index 453ef4eca..b5ae5046b 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ django.jQuery(function ($) {
     if (data.type === "command_update") {
       handleCommandMessage($, data);
     } else if (data.type === "batch_status") {
-      handleBatchStatusMessage($, data);
+      handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, batchCommandWebSocket);
     } else if (data.type === "batch_state") {
       handleBatchStateMessage($, data);
     }
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ function handleCommandMessage($, data) {
   renderCommand($, data);
 }
 
-function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data) {
+function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data, websocket) {
   const $status = $(".field-colored_status .readonly .command-status");
   if ($status.length && data.status && data.status_display) {
     $status
@@ -67,15 +67,47 @@ function handleBatchStatusMessage($, data) {
       .addClass("command-status " + data.status)
       .text(data.status_display);
   }
-  if (data.skipped_devices && Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length) {
-    const $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
-    if ($list.length) {
-      const $first = $list.contents().first();
-      if ($first.length && $first[0].nodeType === 3) {
-        $first[0].textContent = Object.keys(data.skipped_devices).length;
-      }
+  updateSkippedDevices($, data);
+  updateTotals($, data.affected_devices, data.total_rows);
+  const $table = $("#result_list");
+  if (
+    websocket &&
+    data.skipped_count &&
+    data.skipped_count !== $table.data("skippedCount")
+  ) {
+    $table.data("skippedCount", data.skipped_count);
+    requestCurrentState($, websocket);
+  }
+}
+
+function updateSkippedDevices($, data) {
+  if (!data.skipped_count) {
+    return;
+  }
+  let $list = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .skipped-devices-list");
+  if (!$list.length) {
+    const $readonly = $(".field-display_skipped_devices .readonly");
+    if (!$readonly.length) {
+      return;
     }
+    $list = $("<div>").addClass("skipped-devices-list");
+    $readonly.empty().append($list);
   }
+  $list.empty().append(document.createTextNode(String(data.skipped_count)));
+  const rows = data.skipped_preview || [];
+  rows.forEach(function (row, index) {
+    if (index === rows.length - 1 && rows.length < data.skipped_count) {
+      $list.append($("<br>")).append(document.createTextNode("\u2026"));
+    }
+    $list
+      .append($("<br>"))
+      .append(document.createTextNode(row.device_name + ": " + row.output));
+  });
+  $list.append(
+    $("<p>")
+      .addClass("skipped-devices-note")
+      .text(gettext("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device.")),
+  );
 }
 
 function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
@@ -154,16 +186,24 @@ function insertRow($, data) {
     "data-device-pk": data.device,
     class: rowClass,
   });
-  $row.append(
-    $("<td>").append(
-      $("<a>")
-        .attr({
-          href: getDeviceChangeUrl($, data.device),
-          class: "device-link",
-        })
-        .text(data.device_name),
-    ),
-  );
+  if (data.is_skipped) {
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>").append(
+        $("<span>").addClass("device-name-disabled").text(data.device_name),
+      ),
+    );
+  } else {
+    $row.append(
+      $("<td>").append(
+        $("<a>")
+          .attr({
+            href: getDeviceChangeUrl($, data.device),
+            class: "device-link",
+          })
+          .text(data.device_name),
+      ),
+    );
+  }
   $row.append(
     $("<td>").append(
       $("<span>")
@@ -226,7 +266,11 @@ function renderPagination($, totalRows) {
     $("<span>")
       .addClass("current-page")
       .text(
-        gettext("Page") + " " + currentPage + " " + gettext("of") + " " + totalPages,
+        interpolate(
+          gettext("Page %(current)s of %(total)s"),
+          { current: currentPage, total: totalPages },
+          true,
+        ),
       ),
   );
   if (currentPage < totalPages) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index 6ac818c27..70e1f5e19 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -40,9 +40,18 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
 
   function handleTypeChange() {
     const selected = $typeSelect.val();
+    let data = null;
+    try {
+      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
+    } catch (error) {
+      data = null;
+    }
     $container.empty();
     if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName);
+      renderCustomCommandField($, $container);
+      if (data && data.command) {
+        $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
+      }
       updateCustomCommandInput();
     } else if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
       renderChangePasswordFields($, $container);
@@ -85,18 +94,9 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
       return;
     }
     handleTypeChange();
-    let data = null;
-    try {
-      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
-    } catch (error) {
-      data = null;
-    }
-    if (data && data.command) {
-      $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
-    }
   });
 
-  $("#review-command-btn").on("click", function () {
+  $form.on("submit", function (event) {
     clearFieldErrors($);
     const type = $typeSelect.val();
     let hasError = false;
@@ -124,8 +124,33 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
         hasError = true;
       }
     }
-    if (!hasError) {
-      $form.submit();
+    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
+      const $password = $container.find("#id_password");
+      const $confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password");
+      const password = $password.val() || "";
+      const confirmPassword = $confirmPassword.val() || "";
+      if (!password || !confirmPassword) {
+        showFieldError(
+          (password ? $confirmPassword : $password).closest(".form-row"),
+          gettext("This field is required."),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
+      } else if (password.length < 6 || !$.trim(password)) {
+        showFieldError(
+          $password.closest(".form-row"),
+          gettext("Your password must be at least 6 characters long"),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
+      } else if (password !== confirmPassword) {
+        showFieldError(
+          $confirmPassword.closest(".form-row"),
+          gettext("The two password fields didn't match."),
+        );
+        hasError = true;
+      }
+    }
+    if (hasError) {
+      event.preventDefault();
     }
   });
 }
@@ -192,7 +217,6 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
   });
 
   $form.on("submit", function () {
-    removeStoredExclusions(storageKey);
     // guards against a double click creating two mass commands
     $button.prop("disabled", true);
   });
@@ -211,15 +235,13 @@ function getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName) {
   return $hiddenInput;
 }
 
-function renderCustomCommandField($, $container, fieldName) {
+function renderCustomCommandField($, $container) {
   const $row = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
   const $flexContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
   $flexContainer.append(
     '<label for="id_command" class="required">' + gettext("Command") + "</label>",
   );
-  $flexContainer.append(
-    '<input type="text" id="id_command" name="' + fieldName + '" class="vTextField">',
-  );
+  $flexContainer.append('<input type="text" id="id_command" class="vTextField">');
   $row.append($flexContainer);
   $row.append(
     '<div class="help" id="id_command_helptext"><div>' +
@@ -305,14 +327,6 @@ function setStoredExclusions(storageKey, pks) {
   }
 }
 
-function removeStoredExclusions(storageKey) {
-  try {
-    window.sessionStorage.removeItem(storageKey);
-  } catch (error) {
-    // see getStoredExclusions()
-  }
-}
-
 function clearAbandonedExclusions() {
   try {
     const storage = window.sessionStorage;
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
index 32c8f9441..a07f2fba4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/batch_command_change_form.html
@@ -19,10 +19,8 @@
 {% block content %}
 {{ block.super }}
 
-<!-- Commands Section -->
 <h1 class="commands-title">{% trans "Commands" %}</h1>
 
-<!-- OpenWISP Filter Section -->
 {% if filter_specs %}
 <div id="ow-changelist-filter">
   <div class="filters-bottom">
@@ -84,7 +82,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
 </div>
 {% endif %}
 
-<!-- Search Bar -->
 <div class="search-section">
   <form method="get" class="search-form">
     <svg class="search-icon" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2">
@@ -102,7 +99,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
   </form>
 </div>
 
-<!-- Results Table -->
 <div class="results-container">
   <table id="result_list" class="results-table"
     data-device-url="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' '00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000' %}"
@@ -119,14 +115,14 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
     </thead>
     <tbody>
       {% for command in commands %}
-      <tr id="batch-command-row-{{ command.device_pk }}"
-          data-device-pk="{{ command.device_pk }}"
+      <tr id="batch-command-row-{{ command.device }}"
+          data-device-pk="{{ command.device }}"
           class="{% cycle 'row1' 'row2' %}">
         <td>
           {% if command.is_skipped %}
           <span class="device-name-disabled">{{ command.device_name }}</span>
           {% else %}
-          <a href="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' command.device_pk %}#command_set-2-group"
+          <a href="{% url 'admin:config_device_change' command.device %}#command_set-2-group"
             class="device-link" aria-label="{% trans 'View recent commands' %} {{ command.device_name }}">
             {{ command.device_name }}
           </a>
@@ -148,7 +144,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
     </tbody>
   </table>
 
-  <!-- Results Count -->
   {% if paginator %}
   <p class="paginator">
     {% blocktrans count counter=paginator.count %}
@@ -158,7 +153,6 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
   </p>
   {% endif %}
 
-  <!-- Pagination -->
   {% if page_obj.has_other_pages %}
   <div class="pagination">
     <span class="step-links">
@@ -168,7 +162,7 @@ <h3 id="changelist-filter-clear" class="filter-clear-heading">
       </a>
       {% endif %}
       <span class="current-page">
-        {% trans 'Page' %} {{ page_obj.number }} {% trans 'of' %} {{ page_obj.paginator.num_pages }}
+        {% blocktrans with current=page_obj.number total=page_obj.paginator.num_pages %}Page {{ current }} of {{ total }}{% endblocktrans %}
       </span>
       {% if page_obj.has_next %}
       <a href="?{% for key,value in request.GET.items %}{% if key != 'page' %}{{ key }}={{ value|urlencode }}&{% endif %}{% endfor %}page={{ page_obj.next_page_number }}">
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index ec92e55e9..040d826f6 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   <div class="form-row">
     <div class="flex-container">
       <label>{% trans 'Command' %}</label>
-      <div class="readonly"><code>{{ command_description }}</code></div>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ command_description }}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
   {% endif %}
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Summary' %}</h2>
   <div class="form-row">
     <div class="flex-container">
       <label>{% trans 'Triggered by' %}</label>
-      <div class="readonly">{{ request.user }} &mdash; {% now "F j, Y, P" %}</div>
+      <div class="readonly">{{ request.user }} &mdash; {% now "DATETIME_FORMAT" %}</div>
     </div>
   </div>
 </fieldset>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index 0aec77986..91072fd7e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -58,92 +58,26 @@
 
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
       <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
-      <div class="form-row field-type{% if form.type.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.type.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.type.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.type }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.type.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.type.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.type.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.type.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.type %}
       <div id="command-input-container"></div>
       {{ form.input }}
       {% if form.input.errors %}
       <div class="form-row errors">{{ form.input.errors }}</div>
       {% endif %}
-      <div class="form-row field-label{% if form.label.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.label.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.label.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.label }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.label.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.label.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.label.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.label.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
-      <div class="form-row field-notes{% if form.notes.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.notes.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.notes.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.notes }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.notes.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.notes.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.notes.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.notes.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.label %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.notes %}
     </fieldset>
 
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
       <h2>{% trans "Targets" %}</h2>
-      <div class="form-row field-organization{% if form.organization.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.organization.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.organization.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.organization }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.organization.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.organization.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.organization.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.organization.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
-      <div class="form-row field-location{% if form.location.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.location.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.location.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.location }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.location.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.location.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.location.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.location.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
-      <div class="form-row field-group{% if form.group.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
-        {{ form.group.errors }}
-        <div class="flex-container">
-          {{ form.group.label_tag }}
-          {{ form.group }}
-        </div>
-        {% if form.group.help_text %}
-        <div class="help"{% if form.group.id_for_label %} id="{{ form.group.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
-          <div>{{ form.group.help_text }}</div>
-        </div>
-        {% endif %}
-      </div>
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.organization %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.location %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.group %}
     </fieldset>
 
     <div class="submit-row">
       <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url opts|admin_urlname:'changelist' %}">{% trans "Cancel" %}</a>
-      <button type="button" class="default" id="review-command-btn">{% trans "Review command" %}</button>
+      <button type="submit" class="default" id="review-command-btn">{% trans "Review command" %}</button>
     </div>
   </form>
 </div>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..bec22c341
--- /dev/null
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+<div class="form-row field-{{ field.name }}{% if field.errors %} errors{% endif %}">
+  {{ field.errors }}
+  <div class="flex-container">
+    {{ field.label_tag }}
+    {{ field }}
+  </div>
+  {% if field.help_text %}
+  <div class="help"{% if field.id_for_label %} id="{{ field.id_for_label }}_helptext"{% endif %}>
+    <div>{{ field.help_text }}</div>
+  </div>
+  {% endif %}
+</div>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
index ef46278f2..01351230e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_api.py
@@ -423,7 +423,7 @@ def test_create_command_without_connection(self):
         )
         self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 400)
         self.assertIn(
-            "Device has no credentials assigned.",
+            "Device has no credentials assigned",
             response.data["device"][0],
         )
 
@@ -1065,7 +1065,7 @@ def test_batch_command_endpoints_no_of_queries(self):
                 "devices": [str(d.pk) for d in devices],
             }
             url = reverse("connection_api:batch_command_execute")
-            with self.assertNumQueries(16):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(15):
                 response = self.client.post(
                     url,
                     data=json.dumps(payload),
@@ -1102,7 +1102,7 @@ def test_batch_command_endpoints_no_of_queries(self):
                 "group": str(group.pk),
             }
             url = reverse("connection_api:batch_command_execute")
-            with self.assertNumQueries(15):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(14):
                 response = self.client.post(
                     url,
                     data=json.dumps(payload),
@@ -1128,7 +1128,7 @@ def test_batch_command_endpoints_no_of_queries(self):
                 "label": "test-label",
             }
             url = reverse("connection_api:batch_command_execute")
-            with self.assertNumQueries(13):
+            with self.assertNumQueries(12):
                 response = self.client.post(
                     url,
                     data=json.dumps(payload),
@@ -2258,7 +2258,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device_b.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
             )
             command_qs = Command.objects.filter(batch_command=batch)
             self.assertTrue(command_qs.filter(device=device_a).exists())
@@ -2318,7 +2318,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device has no credentials assigned",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
             )
             detail_url = reverse(
                 "connection_api:batch_command_detail",
@@ -2360,7 +2360,7 @@ def test_batch_command_execute_skipped_devices(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device is deactivated",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
             )
             detail_url = reverse(
                 "connection_api:batch_command_detail",
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index fc45ff2d6..963f625b9 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -614,7 +614,7 @@ def test_command_validation(self):
             self.assertIn("device", exception.message_dict)
             self.assertEqual(
                 exception.message_dict["device"],
-                ["Device has no credentials assigned."],
+                ["Device has no credentials assigned"],
             )
 
     def test_command_validation_deactivated_device(self):
@@ -646,7 +646,7 @@ def test_command_validation_deactivated_device(self):
                 command.clean()
             self.assertIn("device", ctx.exception.message_dict)
             self.assertEqual(
-                ctx.exception.message_dict["device"], ["Device is deactivated."]
+                ctx.exception.message_dict["device"], ["Device is deactivated"]
             )
 
     @tag("skip_prod")
@@ -1141,7 +1141,7 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_deactivated_device(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device is deactivated",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
             )
 
     def test_batch_command_create_commands_no_credentials(self):
@@ -1157,7 +1157,7 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_no_credentials(self):
         self.assertIn(str(device.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
         self.assertIn(
             "Device has no credentials assigned",
-            batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)][0],
+            batch.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)]["error"],
         )
 
     def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
@@ -1192,7 +1192,7 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
                 self.assertIn(str(device_b.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
                 self.assertIn(
                     '"custom" command is not available for this organization',
-                    batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)][0],
+                    batch.skipped_devices[str(device_b.pk)]["error"],
                 )
                 db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
                 self.assertEqual(batch.skipped_devices, db_batch.skipped_devices)
@@ -1238,12 +1238,12 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
             self.assertIn(str(device_no_creds.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device has no credentials assigned",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)]["error"],
             )
             self.assertIn(str(device_deactivated.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device is deactivated",
-                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_deactivated.pk)][0],
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_deactivated.pk)]["error"],
             )
             self.assertNotIn(str(device_ok.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
             db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
@@ -1720,7 +1720,9 @@ def test_batch_command_calculate_and_update_status(self):
 
         with self.subTest("all success with skipped shows failed"):
             batch3 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
-            batch3.skipped_devices = {str(device.pk): ["no credentials"]}
+            batch3.skipped_devices = {
+                str(device.pk): {"name": device.name, "error": "no credentials"}
+            }
             batch3.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
             Command.objects.create(
                 batch_command=batch3,
diff --git a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
index 675ddac9e..19896a465 100644
--- a/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
+++ b/tests/openwisp2/sample_connection/migrations/0005_batchcommand_command_batch_command.py
@@ -100,8 +100,9 @@ class Migration(migrations.Migration):
                         default=dict,
                         verbose_name="skipped devices",
                         help_text=(
-                            "Maps device UUIDs to validation error messages for "
-                            "devices that were skipped during command creation."
+                            "Maps device UUIDs to the name of the device and the "
+                            "validation error that caused it to be skipped during "
+                            "command creation."
                         ),
                     ),
                 ),

From ff7a90316a1ad0a87858b274d671a3b00e837221 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Tue, 18 Aug 2026 19:55:20 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 10/13] [fix] Made skipped devices show first 2 and the last
 device erros only

---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py                      | 4 +---
 .../connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css       | 3 ---
 .../connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js         | 5 -----
 3 files changed, 1 insertion(+), 11 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 2862b8844..31537082e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -755,10 +755,8 @@ def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if len(rows) < len(obj.skipped_devices):
             lines.insert(-1, "\u2026")
         return format_html(
-            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}'
-            '<p class="skipped-devices-note">{}</p></div>',
+            '<div class="skipped-devices-list">{}</div>',
             format_html_join(mark_safe("<br>"), "{}", ((line,) for line in lines)),
-            _("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device."),
         )
 
     display_skipped_devices.short_description = _("skipped devices")
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 369101406..1661ee6bb 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -117,9 +117,6 @@
 .skipped-devices-list {
   line-height: 1.7;
 }
-.skipped-devices-note {
-  margin: 1em 0 0;
-}
 .field-display_skipped_devices .readonly.readonly {
   padding: 0;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index b5ae5046b..66668e3ff 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -103,11 +103,6 @@ function updateSkippedDevices($, data) {
       .append($("<br>"))
       .append(document.createTextNode(row.device_name + ": " + row.output));
   });
-  $list.append(
-    $("<p>")
-      .addClass("skipped-devices-note")
-      .text(gettext("Refer to the table below to see what happened to each device.")),
-  );
 }
 
 function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {

From b8538986e44bb37a5fea3827992456fd17809d88 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Thu, 20 Aug 2026 07:40:16 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 11/13] [fix] Addressed review comments

- give the confirm page device admin its own readonly_fields copy
- reject an execution whose wizard token or device set no longer matches
- check the view permission in the batch websocket consumer instead of add
- defer batch websocket broadcasts to transaction commit and log failures
- take the affected devices count from the creating loop instead of a query
- cap the command output preview to the last 100 characters
- build the batch filters from skipped devices too and page them lazily
- preserve server totals on the change page whenever a filter is active
- link live rows to the device recent commands section
- scope the group and location choices to the selected organization
- use the command schema widget for the mass command input, so any
  registered command type can be configured, reviewed and executed
- keep its generated fields and validation errors consistent with the
  rest of the admin form
---
 openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py       | 193 +++++++++------
 openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py        |  47 ++--
 openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py |  13 +-
 .../connection/channels/consumers.py          |   7 +-
 .../static/connection/css/batch-command.css   |  56 +++++
 .../static/connection/js/batch-command.js     |  17 +-
 .../static/connection/js/execute-command.js   | 233 ++++++------------
 .../batch_command/confirm_command.html        |   1 +
 .../batch_command/execute_command.html        |   6 +-
 openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py     |  28 +++
 10 files changed, 333 insertions(+), 268 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
index 31537082e..c321f92e1 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/admin.py
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import hashlib
 import logging
 from datetime import timedelta
 from types import SimpleNamespace
@@ -9,7 +10,7 @@
 from django.contrib import admin, messages
 from django.core.exceptions import ObjectDoesNotExist, PermissionDenied, ValidationError
 from django.core.paginator import EmptyPage, PageNotAnInteger, Paginator
-from django.db.models import Count
+from django.db.models import Count, Q
 from django.http import HttpResponseForbidden, JsonResponse
 from django.shortcuts import redirect
 from django.template.response import TemplateResponse
@@ -26,7 +27,12 @@
 from ..config.admin import DeactivatedDeviceReadOnlyMixin, DeviceAdmin
 from .filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from .schema import schema
-from .widgets import CommandSchemaWidget, CredentialsSchemaWidget
+from .widgets import (
+    BatchCommandSchemaWidget,
+    CommandSchemaWidget,
+    CredentialsSchemaWidget,
+    OrganizationScopedSelect,
+)
 
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
@@ -36,7 +42,6 @@
 BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 Device = swapper.load_model("config", "Device")
 DeviceGroup = swapper.load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
-DeviceLocation = swapper.load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
 Location = swapper.load_model("geo", "Location")
 Organization = swapper.load_model("openwisp_users", "Organization")
 
@@ -68,8 +73,11 @@ class Meta:
             "location",
         ]
         widgets = {
+            "label": forms.TextInput(attrs={"class": "vTextField"}),
             "notes": forms.Textarea(attrs={"rows": 3}),
-            "input": forms.HiddenInput(),
+            "input": BatchCommandSchemaWidget,
+            "group": OrganizationScopedSelect,
+            "location": OrganizationScopedSelect,
         }
 
     class Media:
@@ -155,7 +163,8 @@ def _pk(value):
             # it a wizard would inherit the devices unselected by a previous
             # one. It has to be issued here rather than by the browser,
             # because the session is shared between tabs and sessionStorage
-            # is not. Not a security token: it only scopes a storage key.
+            # is not. It is also submitted back on execution, which runs
+            # only the wizard the confirm page was rendered with.
             "token": uuid4().hex,
             "type": self.cleaned_data["type"],
             "label": self.cleaned_data["label"],
@@ -465,6 +474,11 @@ def get_urls(self):
                 self.admin_site.admin_view(self.confirm_command_view),
                 name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_confirm",
             ),
+            path(
+                "ui/schema.json",
+                self.admin_site.admin_view(self.schema_view),
+                name=f"{options.app_label}_{options.model_name}_schema",
+            ),
         ] + super().get_urls()
 
     def _check_add_permission(self, request):
@@ -472,6 +486,23 @@ def _check_add_permission(self, request):
         if not request.user.has_perm(permission):
             raise PermissionDenied
 
+    def schema_view(self, request):
+        """Returns the schemas of the command types the wizard offers.
+
+        The type choices are the union over the organizations the user
+        manages, so the schemas are too: the editor fetches them once on
+        page load, before an organization has been picked.
+        """
+        self._check_add_permission(request)
+        if request.user.is_superuser:
+            return JsonResponse(Command.get_org_schema())
+        schemas = {}
+        for organization_id in request.user.organizations_managed:
+            schemas.update(
+                Command.get_org_schema(organization_id=organization_id) or {}
+            )
+        return JsonResponse(schemas)
+
     def execute_command_view(self, request):
         """First step of the mass command workflow: collect the details.
         A valid submission goes to the session and redirects to the confirm
@@ -512,6 +543,8 @@ def confirm_command_view(self, request):
         if not wizard:
             return self._restart(request)
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        wizard["devices_digest"] = self._devices_digest(devices)
+        request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
         device_admin = self.get_device_admin(devices)
         # changelist_view() assembles the whole changelist context (cl,
         # media, pagination) and renders the change_list_template of the
@@ -535,7 +568,7 @@ def get_device_admin(self, devices):
         device_admin_class = type(
             "BatchCommandDeviceAdmin",
             (BatchCommandDeviceAdminMixin, registered),
-            {},
+            {"readonly_fields": list(registered.readonly_fields)},
         )
         return device_admin_class(Device, self.admin_site, devices=devices)
 
@@ -588,6 +621,13 @@ def _resolve_target_queryset(self, request, wizard):
             )
         return devices.distinct().order_by("name")
 
+    def _devices_digest(self, devices):
+        """Identifies the set of devices a confirm page was rendered with,
+        so that only the reviewed set is executed.
+        """
+        pks = sorted(str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True))
+        return hashlib.sha256(",".join(pks).encode()).hexdigest()
+
     def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
         targets = []
         for model, key in (
@@ -608,21 +648,47 @@ def _confirm_context(self, request, wizard, devices):
             "device_changelist_template": self.get_device_changelist_template(),
             "wizard": wizard,
             "command_type_display": command_types.get(wizard["type"], wizard["type"]),
-            "command_description": (wizard.get("input") or {}).get("command", ""),
+            "command_description": self._describe_input(wizard.get("input")),
             "targets_display": ", ".join(targets) if targets else _("All devices"),
             "device_count": devices.count(),
             "has_view_permission": self.has_view_permission(request),
         }
 
+    def _describe_input(self, command_input):
+        """Renders the submitted input for the review step, so that every
+        registered command type is shown and not only custom ones.
+        """
+        if not isinstance(command_input, dict):
+            return ""
+        if "command" in command_input:
+            return command_input["command"]
+        return ", ".join(
+            f"{key}: {value}"
+            for key, value in command_input.items()
+            if "password" not in key
+        )
+
     def _execute_batch_command(self, request):
         """Applies the device selection and dispatches the mass command.
-        The wizard is popped first, so a double submit cannot create the
-        batch twice: the second request finds nothing and restarts.
+        Only the wizard the confirm page was rendered with is executed, and
+        it is removed before the batch is created, so a double submit finds
+        nothing and restarts.
         """
-        wizard = request.session.pop(self.session_key, None)
-        if not wizard:
+        wizard = request.session.get(self.session_key)
+        if not wizard or request.POST.get("token") != wizard.get("token"):
             return self._restart(request)
+        del request.session[self.session_key]
         devices = self._resolve_target_queryset(request, wizard)
+        if self._devices_digest(devices) != wizard.get("devices_digest"):
+            request.session[self.session_key] = wizard
+            self.message_user(
+                request,
+                _("The targeted devices changed, please review them again."),
+                messages.WARNING,
+            )
+            return redirect(
+                f"admin:{self.opts.app_label}_{self.opts.model_name}_confirm"
+            )
         # The confirm page only lists the devices matched on the execute
         # page, so the selection can only ever remove from that set: the
         # browser never supplies a device to add.
@@ -736,14 +802,6 @@ def affected_devices(self, obj):
     affected_devices.short_description = _("affected devices")
     affected_devices.admin_order_field = "_affected_devices"
 
-    def _get_skipped_devices(self, obj):
-        if not hasattr(obj, "_skipped_devices_cache"):
-            obj._skipped_devices_cache = {
-                str(device.pk): device
-                for device in Device.objects.filter(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-            }
-        return obj._skipped_devices_cache
-
     def display_skipped_devices(self, obj):
         if not obj.skipped_devices:
             return "-"
@@ -797,13 +855,16 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
 
         filter_specs.append(SimpleNamespace(title=_("status"), choices=status_choices))
 
+        batch_devices = Device.objects.filter(
+            Q(command__batch_command=obj) | Q(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+        )
+
         # Location filter
         location_spec = self._build_related_filter(
             _("location"),
             "location_id",
             current_location or "",
-            Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
-            .exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
+            batch_devices.exclude(devicelocation__location__isnull=True)
             .values_list(
                 "devicelocation__location__id",
                 "devicelocation__location__name",
@@ -819,10 +880,7 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
             _("device group"),
             "group_id",
             current_group or "",
-            Device.objects.filter(
-                command__batch_command=obj,
-                group__isnull=False,
-            )
+            batch_devices.filter(group__isnull=False)
             .values_list("group__id", "group__name")
             .distinct(),
             _make_choice,
@@ -836,9 +894,9 @@ def _make_choice(current_value, display, param_name, value):
                 _("organization"),
                 "organization_id",
                 current_org or "",
-                Device.objects.filter(command__batch_command=obj)
-                .values_list("organization__id", "organization__name")
-                .distinct(),
+                batch_devices.values_list(
+                    "organization__id", "organization__name"
+                ).distinct(),
                 _make_choice,
             )
             if org_spec:
@@ -869,7 +927,7 @@ def _command_row(command):
             "is_skipped": False,
         }
 
-    def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=None):
+    def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_items, page_param, per_page=None):
         """Returns one page of rows without loading the whole batch in memory.
         Commands keep the ordering of ``AbstractCommand.Meta`` ("created"),
         so the newest is always last and the change page can append results
@@ -878,7 +936,7 @@ def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=Non
         """
         per_page = per_page or self.device_commands_per_page
         commands_count = commands_qs.count()
-        total = commands_count + len(skipped_rows)
+        total = commands_count + len(skipped_items)
         paginator = Paginator(range(total), per_page)
         try:
             page_obj = paginator.page(page_param or 1)
@@ -892,7 +950,10 @@ def _paginate_commands(self, commands_qs, skipped_rows, page_param, per_page=Non
         ]
         skipped_start = max(0, start - commands_count)
         skipped_end = max(0, end - commands_count)
-        rows += skipped_rows[skipped_start:skipped_end]
+        rows += [
+            BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk, skipped)
+            for pk, skipped in skipped_items[skipped_start:skipped_end]
+        ]
         return page_obj, paginator, rows
 
     def _get_active_filters(self, request):
@@ -921,47 +982,29 @@ def _apply_command_filters(self, qs, filters):
         return qs
 
     def _get_matching_skipped_devices(self, obj, filters):
-        pks = list(obj.skipped_devices.keys())
-        location_id = filters["location_id"]
-        if location_id:
-            device_locations = {
-                str(pk)
-                for pk in DeviceLocation.objects.filter(
-                    content_object_id__in=pks,
-                    location_id=location_id,
-                ).values_list("content_object_id", flat=True)
-            }
-        else:
-            device_locations = None
-        devices = self._get_skipped_devices(obj)
-        rows = []
-        for pk_str, skipped in obj.skipped_devices.items():
-            device = devices.get(pk_str)
-            if not device:
-                if not any(
-                    (
-                        filters["organization_id"],
-                        filters["group_id"],
-                        location_id,
-                    )
-                ) and (
-                    not filters["q"] or filters["q"].lower() in skipped["name"].lower()
-                ):
-                    rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
-                continue
-            if (
-                filters["organization_id"]
-                and str(device.organization_id) != filters["organization_id"]
-            ):
-                continue
-            if filters["group_id"] and str(device.group_id) != filters["group_id"]:
-                continue
-            if device_locations is not None and pk_str not in device_locations:
-                continue
-            if filters["q"] and filters["q"].lower() not in skipped["name"].lower():
-                continue
-            rows.append(BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pk_str, skipped))
-        return rows
+        related = (
+            filters["organization_id"],
+            filters["group_id"],
+            filters["location_id"],
+        )
+        matching = None
+        if any(related):
+            organization_id, group_id, location_id = related
+            devices = Device.objects.filter(pk__in=obj.skipped_devices.keys())
+            if organization_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(organization_id=organization_id)
+            if group_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(group_id=group_id)
+            if location_id:
+                devices = devices.filter(devicelocation__location_id=location_id)
+            matching = {str(pk) for pk in devices.values_list("pk", flat=True)}
+        query = filters["q"].lower() if filters["q"] else ""
+        return [
+            (pk, skipped)
+            for pk, skipped in obj.skipped_devices.items()
+            if (matching is None or pk in matching)
+            and (not query or query in skipped["name"].lower())
+        ]
 
     def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
         extra_context = extra_context or {}
@@ -970,11 +1013,11 @@ def change_view(self, request, object_id, form_url="", extra_context=None):
             commands_qs = self._get_commands(request, obj)
             filters = self._get_active_filters(request)
             commands_qs = self._apply_command_filters(commands_qs, filters)
-            skipped_rows = []
+            skipped_items = []
             if obj.skipped_devices and filters["status"] in ("", "skipped"):
-                skipped_rows = self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters)
+                skipped_items = self._get_matching_skipped_devices(obj, filters)
             page_obj, paginator, commands = self._paginate_commands(
-                commands_qs, skipped_rows, request.GET.get("page", 1)
+                commands_qs, skipped_items, request.GET.get("page", 1)
             )
             filter_specs = self._build_filter_specs(
                 request,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
index 37dbcfc7c..7c2485527 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/apps.py
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+import logging
+
 from asgiref.sync import async_to_sync
 from channels import layers
 from django.apps import AppConfig
@@ -15,6 +17,8 @@
 from ..config.signals import config_deactivating, config_modified
 from .signals import is_working_changed
 
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
 
 class ConnectionConfig(AppConfig):
     name = "openwisp_controller.connection"
@@ -74,16 +78,27 @@ def ready(self):
     def config_modified_receiver(cls, **kwargs):
         transaction.on_commit(lambda: cls._launch_update_config(kwargs["device"]))
 
+    @classmethod
+    def _send_batch_update(cls, group, data):
+        def send():
+            try:
+                async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(
+                    group, {"type": "send.update", "data": data}
+                )
+            except Exception:
+                logger.exception("Failed to send update to %s", group)
+
+        transaction.on_commit(send)
+
     @classmethod
     def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import CommandSerializer
 
         if created and not instance.batch_command_id:
             return
-        channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         serialized_data = CommandSerializer(instance).data
         if not created:
-            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
+            async_to_sync(layers.get_channel_layer().group_send)(
                 f"config.device-{instance.device_id}",
                 {"type": "send.update", "model": "Command", "data": serialized_data},
             )
@@ -97,24 +112,25 @@ def command_save_receiver(cls, sender, created, instance, **kwargs):
                 localtime(instance.modified), "DATETIME_FORMAT"
             )
             batch_data["type"] = "command_update"
-            batch = instance.batch_command
-            affected_devices = batch.affected_devices
-            batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
-            batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
-                batch.skipped_devices or {}
-            )
             if created:
-                batch_data["index"] = affected_devices - 1
-            async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
-                f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}",
-                {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
+                batch = instance.batch_command
+                index = getattr(instance, "_batch_index", None)
+                if index is None:
+                    index = batch.affected_devices - 1
+                affected_devices = index + 1
+                batch_data["index"] = index
+                batch_data["affected_devices"] = affected_devices
+                batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + len(
+                    batch.skipped_devices or {}
+                )
+            cls._send_batch_update(
+                f"config.batchcommand-{instance.batch_command_id}", batch_data
             )
 
     @classmethod
     def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         from .api.serializers import BatchCommandSerializer
 
-        channel_layer = layers.get_channel_layer()
         batch_data = BatchCommandSerializer(instance).data
         batch_data["status_display"] = instance.get_status_display()
         batch_data["type"] = "batch_status"
@@ -124,10 +140,7 @@ def batch_command_save_receiver(cls, sender, instance, **kwargs):
         batch_data["total_rows"] = affected_devices + skipped_count
         batch_data["skipped_count"] = skipped_count
         batch_data["skipped_preview"] = instance.get_skipped_preview()
-        async_to_sync(channel_layer.group_send)(
-            f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}",
-            {"type": "send.update", "data": batch_data},
-        )
+        cls._send_batch_update(f"config.batchcommand-{instance.pk}", batch_data)
 
     @classmethod
     def _launch_update_config(cls, device):
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
index 65916dbac..67d195936 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/base/models.py
@@ -556,9 +556,13 @@ def output_preview(self):
         lines = (self.output or "").strip().splitlines()
         if not lines:
             return ""
-        if len(lines) == 1:
-            return lines[0]
-        return "… " + lines[-1]
+        max_length = 100
+        line = lines[-1]
+        truncated = len(lines) > 1
+        if len(line) > max_length:
+            line = line[-max_length:]
+            truncated = True
+        return f"… {line}" if truncated else line
 
     @property
     def is_custom(self):
@@ -1007,6 +1011,7 @@ def create_commands(self):
         Device = load_model("config", "Device")
         self.skipped_devices = {}
         device_pks = []
+        created_count = 0
         for device in self.resolve_devices().iterator():
             device_pks.append(device.pk)
             command = Command(
@@ -1017,7 +1022,9 @@ def create_commands(self):
             )
             try:
                 command.full_clean()
+                command._batch_index = created_count
                 command.save()
+                created_count += 1
             except ValidationError as e:
                 self.skipped_devices[str(device.pk)] = {
                     "name": device.name,
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
index 9b2ac78f6..8fc6b34d4 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/channels/consumers.py
@@ -35,9 +35,10 @@ def is_user_authorized(self):
         user = self.scope["user"]
         if user.is_superuser:
             return True
-        # a mass command cannot be changed or deleted from the admin
-        if not (
-            user.is_staff and self._user_has_permissions(change=False, delete=False)
+        opts = self.model._meta
+        if not user.is_staff or not any(
+            user.has_perm(f"{opts.app_label}.{action}_{opts.model_name}")
+            for action in ("view", "change")
         ):
             return False
         organization_id = (
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
index 1661ee6bb..bf5307b85 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/css/batch-command.css
@@ -250,3 +250,59 @@
   gap: 0.5rem;
   justify-content: flex-end;
 }
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor-wrapper > fieldset.module {
+  background: none;
+  border: none;
+  margin: 0;
+  padding: 0;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor-wrapper > fieldset > h2,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor h3 {
+  display: none !important;
+}
+.execute-batch-command.no-command-type .jsoneditor-wrapper {
+  display: none;
+}
+.execute-batch-command #main .jsoneditor-wrapper div.jsoneditor .form-row {
+  display: flex;
+  flex-wrap: wrap;
+  padding: 15px;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor-wrapper div.jsoneditor label {
+  font-weight: bold;
+  margin-left: 0;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row > .help {
+  flex-basis: 100%;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .errorlist {
+  display: none;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .errorlist {
+  display: block;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row.errors input,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row.errors select,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row.errors textarea {
+  border-color: var(--border-color);
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .form-row.errors input,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .form-row.errors select,
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor.command-errors .form-row.errors textarea {
+  border-color: var(--ow-color-danger);
+}
+.execute-batch-command .jsoneditor .form-row > ul.errorlist {
+  order: -1;
+  flex-basis: calc(100% - 160px);
+  margin-left: 160px;
+  padding-left: 10px;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .form-row.field-input {
+  display: none;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .form-row.field-input.errors {
+  display: block !important;
+}
+.execute-batch-command .form-row.field-input.errors .flex-container {
+  display: none;
+}
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
index 66668e3ff..e63da7d31 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/batch-command.js
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ function handleBatchStateMessage($, data) {
     const $row = $("#batch-command-row-" + command.device);
     if ($row.length) {
       updateRow($, $row, command);
-    } else {
+    } else if (!hasActiveFilters()) {
       insertRow($, command);
     }
   });
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ function renderCommand($, data) {
 function belongsOnCurrentPage($, data) {
   // with a filter on, the pushed totals are unfiltered and page boundaries
   // cannot be worked out
-  if (getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+  if (hasActiveFilters()) {
     return false;
   }
   if (data.index == null) {
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ function updateTotals($, affectedDevices, totalRows) {
     }
   }
   // counts are filtered server side, the totals pushed here are not
-  if (totalRows == null || getActiveStatusFilter($)) {
+  if (totalRows == null || hasActiveFilters()) {
     return;
   }
   const $paginator = $(".results-container .paginator");
@@ -283,13 +283,22 @@ function getDeviceChangeUrl($, devicePk) {
   if (!template) {
     return "#";
   }
-  return template.replace(DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER, devicePk);
+  return template.replace(DEVICE_URL_PLACEHOLDER, devicePk) + "#command_set-2-group";
 }
 
 function getActiveStatusFilter($) {
   return $("#result_list").attr("data-active-status") || "";
 }
 
+function hasActiveFilters() {
+  const params = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search);
+  return ["q", "status", "location_id", "group_id", "organization_id"].some(
+    function (name) {
+      return !!params.get(name);
+    },
+  );
+}
+
 function getCurrentPage($) {
   return parseInt($("#result_list").attr("data-current-page"), 10) || 1;
 }
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
index 70e1f5e19..b52577c2c 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/static/connection/js/execute-command.js
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
 "use strict";
 
-const COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM = "custom";
-const COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD = "change_password";
 const EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX = "ow-batch-command-excluded:";
 const WIZARD_SELECTS = "#id_type, #id_organization, #id_group, #id_location";
+const COMMAND_EDITOR_ID = "id_input_jsoneditor";
 
 django.jQuery(function ($) {
   initExecuteCommandForm($);
@@ -16,64 +15,9 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
     return;
   }
   const $form = $typeSelect.closest("form");
-  const $container = $("#command-input-container");
-  const fieldName = $("#id_input").length ? $("#id_input").attr("name") : "input";
-  const $hiddenInput = getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName);
 
-  function updateCustomCommandInput() {
-    const command = $.trim($container.find("#id_command").val());
-    $hiddenInput.val(command ? JSON.stringify({ command: command }) : "");
-  }
-
-  function updateChangePasswordInput() {
-    const password = $container.find("#id_password").val();
-    const confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password").val();
-    $hiddenInput.val(
-      password && confirmPassword
-        ? JSON.stringify({
-            password: password,
-            confirm_password: confirmPassword,
-          })
-        : "",
-    );
-  }
-
-  function handleTypeChange() {
-    const selected = $typeSelect.val();
-    let data = null;
-    try {
-      data = $hiddenInput.val() ? JSON.parse($hiddenInput.val()) : null;
-    } catch (error) {
-      data = null;
-    }
-    $container.empty();
-    if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      renderCustomCommandField($, $container);
-      if (data && data.command) {
-        $container.find("#id_command").val(data.command);
-      }
-      updateCustomCommandInput();
-    } else if (selected === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-      renderChangePasswordFields($, $container);
-      updateChangePasswordInput();
-    } else {
-      $hiddenInput.val("");
-    }
-  }
-
-  // a new mass command starts here, so the devices unselected in an earlier
-  // one which was configured but never executed are dropped
   clearAbandonedExclusions();
 
-  $container.on("input", "#id_command", updateCustomCommandInput);
-  $container.on(
-    "input",
-    "#id_password, #id_confirm_password",
-    updateChangePasswordInput,
-  );
-  $typeSelect.on("change", handleTypeChange);
-  handleTypeChange();
-
   $(WIZARD_SELECTS).select2({
     theme: "default",
     placeholder: gettext("Select an option"),
@@ -81,8 +25,11 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
     width: "resolve",
   });
 
-  // admin pages are served with Cache-Control: no-store, so going back
-  // restores the form values after select2 has rendered its labels
+  initOrganizationScope($);
+  initCommandInput($, $typeSelect);
+
+  // admin pages are served no-store, so a back navigation restores the field
+  // values after select2 has already rendered its labels
   $(window).on("pageshow", function () {
     $(WIZARD_SELECTS).each(function () {
       const $field = $(this);
@@ -90,10 +37,6 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
         $field.trigger("change.select2");
       }
     });
-    if (!$typeSelect.val()) {
-      return;
-    }
-    handleTypeChange();
   });
 
   $form.on("submit", function (event) {
@@ -114,54 +57,81 @@ function initExecuteCommandForm($) {
       );
       hasError = true;
     }
-    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CUSTOM) {
-      const command = $container.find("#id_command").val();
-      if (!$.trim(command || "")) {
-        showFieldError(
-          $container.find(".form-row").first(),
-          gettext("This field is required."),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      }
-    }
-    if (type === COMMAND_TYPE_CHANGE_PASSWORD) {
-      const $password = $container.find("#id_password");
-      const $confirmPassword = $container.find("#id_confirm_password");
-      const password = $password.val() || "";
-      const confirmPassword = $confirmPassword.val() || "";
-      if (!password || !confirmPassword) {
-        showFieldError(
-          (password ? $confirmPassword : $password).closest(".form-row"),
-          gettext("This field is required."),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      } else if (password.length < 6 || !$.trim(password)) {
-        showFieldError(
-          $password.closest(".form-row"),
-          gettext("Your password must be at least 6 characters long"),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      } else if (password !== confirmPassword) {
-        showFieldError(
-          $confirmPassword.closest(".form-row"),
-          gettext("The two password fields didn't match."),
-        );
-        hasError = true;
-      }
+    if (showCommandErrors($)) {
+      hasError = true;
     }
     if (hasError) {
       event.preventDefault();
+      event.stopImmediatePropagation();
     }
   });
 }
 
+// mirrors checkInputIsValid() in commands.js: the editor renders its errors as
+// soon as it is built, so they are kept hidden until the form is submitted
+function showCommandErrors($) {
+  const editor = (django._jsonEditors || {})[COMMAND_EDITOR_ID];
+  if (!editor) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  const errors = editor.validate();
+  // a field is redisplayed only when it was edited or when "show_errors"
+  // changed since the last call, "always" skips both checks
+  editor.options.show_errors = "always";
+  editor.root.showValidationErrors(errors);
+  $("#" + COMMAND_EDITOR_ID).addClass("command-errors");
+  return errors.length > 0;
+}
+
+// with no type the editor is handed the whole schema map and renders it as a
+// generic root object
+function initCommandInput($, $typeSelect) {
+  function toggle() {
+    $(document.body).toggleClass("no-command-type", !$typeSelect.val());
+    // the container is reused, its errors belong to the previous type
+    $("#" + COMMAND_EDITOR_ID).removeClass("command-errors");
+  }
+
+  $typeSelect.on("change", toggle);
+  toggle();
+}
+
+function initOrganizationScope($) {
+  const $organization = $("#id_organization");
+  const fields = ["#id_group", "#id_location"];
+  fields.forEach(function (selector) {
+    $(selector).data("allOptions", $(selector).find("option").clone());
+  });
+
+  function applyScope() {
+    const organizationId = $organization.val() || "";
+    fields.forEach(function (selector) {
+      const $field = $(selector);
+      const current = $field.val();
+      const $options = $field.data("allOptions").filter(function () {
+        const value = $(this).attr("value");
+        return (
+          !value ||
+          !organizationId ||
+          $(this).attr("data-organization-id") === organizationId
+        );
+      });
+      $field.empty().append($options.clone());
+      $field.val($options.filter('[value="' + current + '"]').length ? current : "");
+      $field.trigger("change.select2");
+    });
+  }
+
+  $organization.on("change", applyScope);
+  applyScope();
+}
+
 function initDeviceSelection($) {
   const $form = $("#execute-form");
   if (!$form.length) {
     return;
   }
-  // sessionStorage lives as long as the browser tab, so the key carries the
-  // token of this mass command to stop a new one inheriting its exclusions
+  // sessionStorage outlives the wizard, so the key is namespaced by its token
   const storageKey = EXCLUDED_STORAGE_PREFIX + ($form.data("wizard-token") || "");
   const $table = $("#result_list");
   const $excludedField = $("#id_excluded");
@@ -204,8 +174,7 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
     updateSelectionSummary();
   });
 
-  // only the devices listed on the current page are toggled, the ones the
-  // user cannot see are never selected or unselected implicitly
+  // devices the user cannot see are never toggled implicitly
   $table.on("change", "#select-all-devices", function () {
     const checked = this.checked;
     $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
@@ -226,62 +195,6 @@ function initDeviceSelection($) {
   updateSelectionSummary();
 }
 
-function getHiddenInput($, $form, fieldName) {
-  let $hiddenInput = $form.find('input[name="' + fieldName + '"][type="hidden"]');
-  if (!$hiddenInput.length) {
-    $hiddenInput = $("<input>").attr({ type: "hidden", name: fieldName });
-    $form.append($hiddenInput);
-  }
-  return $hiddenInput;
-}
-
-function renderCustomCommandField($, $container) {
-  const $row = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-  const $flexContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-  $flexContainer.append(
-    '<label for="id_command" class="required">' + gettext("Command") + "</label>",
-  );
-  $flexContainer.append('<input type="text" id="id_command" class="vTextField">');
-  $row.append($flexContainer);
-  $row.append(
-    '<div class="help" id="id_command_helptext"><div>' +
-      gettext("Enter the shell command to run on all devices") +
-      "</div></div>",
-  );
-  $container.append($row);
-}
-
-function renderChangePasswordFields($, $container) {
-  const $passwordRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-  const $passwordContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-  $passwordContainer.append(
-    '<label for="id_password" class="required">' + gettext("New password") + "</label>",
-  );
-  $passwordContainer.append(
-    '<input type="password" id="id_password" name="password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-  );
-  $passwordRow.append($passwordContainer);
-  $passwordRow.append(
-    '<div class="help" id="id_password_helptext"><div>' +
-      gettext("Password must be at least 6 characters long") +
-      "</div></div>",
-  );
-  $container.append($passwordRow);
-
-  const $confirmRow = $('<div class="form-row"></div>');
-  const $confirmContainer = $('<div class="flex-container"></div>');
-  $confirmContainer.append(
-    '<label for="id_confirm_password" class="required">' +
-      gettext("Confirm password") +
-      "</label>",
-  );
-  $confirmContainer.append(
-    '<input type="password" id="id_confirm_password" name="confirm_password" minlength="6" maxlength="30">',
-  );
-  $confirmRow.append($confirmContainer);
-  $container.append($confirmRow);
-}
-
 function renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table) {
   const $header = $table.find("thead th").first();
   if (!$header.length || $header.find("#select-all-devices").length) {
@@ -296,7 +209,6 @@ function renderSelectAllCheckbox($, $table) {
   );
 }
 
-// rows are rendered selected by the server, untick the ones excluded earlier
 function restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded) {
   $table.find(".device-checkbox").each(function () {
     const $checkbox = $(this);
@@ -304,8 +216,7 @@ function restoreDeviceCheckboxes($, $table, excluded) {
   });
 }
 
-// exclusions are kept in sessionStorage because turning a page of the device
-// table is an ordinary page load, which would otherwise forget them
+// paging the device table is an ordinary page load, which would forget them
 function getStoredExclusions($, storageKey) {
   const stored = {};
   try {
@@ -343,7 +254,7 @@ function clearAbandonedExclusions() {
 
 function clearFieldErrors($) {
   $(".form-row.errors").removeClass("errors");
-  $(".form-row .errorlist").remove();
+  $(".form-row .errorlist").not(".jsoneditor .errorlist").remove();
 }
 
 function showFieldError($row, message) {
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
index 040d826f6..7401ec413 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/confirm_command.html
@@ -110,6 +110,7 @@ <h2>{% trans 'Affected devices' %}</h2>
   data-wizard-token="{{ wizard.token }}">
   {% csrf_token %}
   <input type="hidden" name="excluded" id="id_excluded" value="">
+  <input type="hidden" name="token" value="{{ wizard.token }}">
   <div class="submit-row">
     <a class="button cancel-link" href="{% url batch_opts|admin_urlname:'execute' %}">{% trans 'Back' %}</a>
     <button type="submit" class="default" id="execute-button">
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
index 91072fd7e..bcd564b44 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/templates/admin/connection/batch_command/execute_command.html
@@ -59,11 +59,7 @@
     <fieldset class="module aligned">
       <h2>{% trans "Command" %}</h2>
       {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.type %}
-      <div id="command-input-container"></div>
-      {{ form.input }}
-      {% if form.input.errors %}
-      <div class="form-row errors">{{ form.input.errors }}</div>
-      {% endif %}
+      {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.input %}
       {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.label %}
       {% include "admin/connection/batch_command/form_row.html" with field=form.notes %}
     </fieldset>
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
index 7160aa599..cda8c62ad 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/widgets.py
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 
 Credentials = swapper.load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 Command = swapper.load_model("connection", "Command")
+BatchCommand = swapper.load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 app_label = Credentials._meta.app_label
 model_name = Credentials._meta.model_name
 
@@ -46,3 +47,30 @@ def media(self):
         css = {"all": ["connection/css/command-inline.css"]}
         media = forms.Media(js=js, css=css)
         return super().media + media
+
+
+class BatchCommandSchemaWidget(CommandSchemaWidget):
+    schema_view_name = (
+        f"admin:{BatchCommand._meta.app_label}"
+        f"_{BatchCommand._meta.model_name}_schema"
+    )
+
+    app_label_model = f"{BatchCommand._meta.app_label}_{BatchCommand._meta.model_name}"
+    extra_attrs = {
+        "data-schema-selector": "#id_type",
+        "data-show-errors": "never",
+        "data-options": '{"disable_properties": true}',
+    }
+
+    @property
+    def media(self):
+        return super(CommandSchemaWidget, self).media
+
+
+class OrganizationScopedSelect(forms.Select):
+    def create_option(self, name, value, *args, **kwargs):
+        option = super().create_option(name, value, *args, **kwargs)
+        instance = getattr(value, "instance", None)
+        if instance is not None:
+            option["attrs"]["data-organization-id"] = str(instance.organization_id)
+        return option

From 10e2df2c9086d2f51c85a005596ac8ab86eb25a8 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Fri, 21 Aug 2026 02:59:26 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 12/13] [tests] Add mass command admin workflow tests and reach
 ~99% coverage

- cover the admin views, the API and the models of the mass command
  workflow, reaching ~99% coverage
- add selenium tests for the wizard, the review page and the mass
  command page, with their search, filters and multitenancy
---
 .../connection/tests/pytest.py                |  272 +++++
 .../connection/tests/test_admin.py            |  683 ++++++++++-
 .../connection/tests/test_models.py           |  144 +++
 .../connection/tests/test_selenium.py         | 1077 ++++++++++++++++-
 openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py |   35 +
 5 files changed, 2208 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)

diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
index d7f7f5659..12bba889f 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/pytest.py
@@ -1,18 +1,26 @@
 from unittest import mock
+from uuid import uuid4
 
 import pytest
 from channels.db import database_sync_to_async
 from channels.testing import WebsocketCommunicator
 from django.conf import settings
+from django.contrib.auth import get_user_model
+from django.contrib.auth.models import AnonymousUser, Permission
 from django.utils import timezone
 from django.utils.module_loading import import_string
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from openwisp_controller.connection.tests.utils import CreateCommandMixin
 
+from .. import apps
+from ..channels.consumers import BatchCommandConsumer
 from .test_models import BaseTestModels
 
+User = get_user_model()
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
+OrganizationUser = load_model("openwisp_users", "OrganizationUser")
 
 
 @pytest.mark.asyncio
@@ -107,3 +115,267 @@ async def test_multiple_connections_receive_updates_with_redis(
         assert response2 == expected_response
         await communicator1.disconnect()
         await communicator2.disconnect()
+
+
+@pytest.mark.asyncio
+@pytest.mark.django_db(transaction=True)
+class TestBatchCommandConsumer(BaseTestModels, CreateCommandMixin):
+    application = import_string(getattr(settings, "ASGI_APPLICATION"))
+    path = "ws/controller/batch-command"
+
+    async def _connect(self, pk, user=None):
+        communicator = WebsocketCommunicator(
+            BatchCommandConsumer.as_asgi(), f"{self.path}/{pk}"
+        )
+        communicator.scope["url_route"] = {"kwargs": {"pk": str(pk)}}
+        if user is not None:
+            communicator.scope["user"] = user
+        connected, _ = await communicator.connect()
+        return communicator, connected
+
+    async def _connect_through_route(self, admin_client, batch):
+        session_id = admin_client.cookies["sessionid"].value
+        communicator = WebsocketCommunicator(
+            self.application,
+            path=f"{self.path}/{batch.pk}",
+            headers=[(b"cookie", f"sessionid={session_id}".encode("ascii"))],
+        )
+        connected, _ = await communicator.connect()
+        return communicator, connected
+
+    async def _drain(self, communicator):
+        while not await communicator.receive_nothing():
+            await communicator.receive_json_from()
+
+    async def _receive_until(self, communicator, message_type, limit=4):
+        for _ in range(limit):
+            message = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            if message.get("type") == message_type:
+                return message
+        raise AssertionError(f"{message_type} was never received")
+
+    @database_sync_to_async
+    def _create_batch(self, organization=None, **kwargs):
+        return self._create_batch_command(organization=organization, **kwargs)
+
+    @database_sync_to_async
+    def _create_staff(self, username, org=None, codenames=(), is_staff=True):
+        user = self._create_user(
+            username=username, email=f"{username}@test.com", is_staff=is_staff
+        )
+        user.user_permissions.set(Permission.objects.filter(codename__in=codenames))
+        if org is not None:
+            OrganizationUser.objects.create(user=user, organization=org, is_admin=True)
+        return User.objects.get(pk=user.pk)
+
+    @database_sync_to_async
+    def _set_skipped(self, batch, count):
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": f"skipped{index}", "error": f"error {index}"}
+            for index in range(count)
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        return list(batch.skipped_devices)
+
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_authorization(self, admin_user, admin_client):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        org2 = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_org)(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect_through_route(admin_client, batch)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk)
+        assert connected is False
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, AnonymousUser())
+        assert connected is False
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        manager = await self._create_staff(
+            "manager", org=org, codenames=["view_batchcommand", "add_batchcommand"]
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, manager)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        add_only = await self._create_staff(
+            "add-only", org=org, codenames=["add_batchcommand"]
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, add_only)
+        assert connected is False
+        outsider = await self._create_staff(
+            "outsider", org=org2, codenames=["view_batchcommand"]
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, outsider)
+        assert connected is False
+        non_staff = await self._create_staff(
+            "non-staff", org=org, codenames=["view_batchcommand"], is_staff=False
+        )
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, non_staff)
+        assert connected is False
+        # a batch without an organization spans every organization
+        shared_batch = await self._create_batch(organization=None)
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(shared_batch.pk, manager)
+        assert connected is False
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(shared_batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(uuid4(), manager)
+        assert connected is False
+        # a rejected connection was never added to a group
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
+    @mock.patch("paramiko.SSHClient.connect")
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_current_state(
+        self, mocked_connect, admin_user
+    ):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        device_conn = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_device_connection)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            command = await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device_conn.device,
+                connection=device_conn,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+                status="success",
+                output="line one\nline two",
+            )
+        skipped_pks = await self._set_skipped(batch, 3)
+        await database_sync_to_async(batch.refresh_from_db)()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        with mock.patch.object(BatchCommandConsumer, "per_page", 2):
+            await communicator.send_json_to(
+                {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 1}
+            )
+            page1 = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            assert page1["type"] == "batch_state"
+            assert page1["total_rows"] == 4
+            batch_status = page1["batch_status"]
+            assert batch_status["status_display"] == batch.get_status_display()
+            assert batch_status["affected_devices"] == 1
+            assert batch_status["skipped_count"] == 3
+            assert [row["device"] for row in batch_status["skipped_preview"]] == (
+                skipped_pks
+            )
+            assert "skipped_devices" not in batch_status
+            assert [row["device"] for row in page1["commands"]] == [
+                str(command.device_id),
+                skipped_pks[0],
+            ]
+            command_row = page1["commands"][0]
+            assert command_row["device_name"] == device_conn.device.name
+            assert command_row["status_display"] == command.get_status_display()
+            assert command_row["output"] == "… line two"
+            assert command_row["modified"]
+            assert "input" not in command_row
+            await communicator.send_json_to(
+                {"type": "request_current_state", "page": 2}
+            )
+            page2 = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+            assert [row["device"] for row in page2["commands"]] == skipped_pks[1:]
+            assert all(row["is_skipped"] for row in page2["commands"])
+            for page in (0, -1, "abc", None):
+                await communicator.send_json_to(
+                    {"type": "request_current_state", "page": page}
+                )
+                response = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+                assert response["commands"] == page1["commands"]
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        await communicator.send_json_to({"type": "request_current_state"})
+        response = await communicator.receive_json_from()
+        assert response["total_rows"] == 4
+        assert [row["device"] for row in response["commands"]] == [
+            str(command.device_id)
+        ] + skipped_pks
+        # a batch deleted after the connection was accepted is not answered
+        await database_sync_to_async(BatchCommand.objects.filter(pk=batch.pk).delete)()
+        await communicator.send_json_to({"type": "request_current_state"})
+        assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_invalid_messages(self, admin_user):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        with mock.patch(
+            "openwisp_controller.connection.channels.consumers.logger"
+        ) as logger:
+            for message in ("not json", "[]", '"string"', "null"):
+                await communicator.send_to(text_data=message)
+                assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+            for message in ({"type": "unknown"}, {}):
+                await communicator.send_json_to(message)
+                assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+            assert logger.warning.call_count == 6
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+
+    @mock.patch("paramiko.SSHClient.connect")
+    async def test_batch_command_consumer_updates(self, mocked_connect, admin_user):
+        org = await database_sync_to_async(self._get_org)()
+        device_conn = await database_sync_to_async(self._create_device_connection)()
+        batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org)
+        other_batch = await self._create_batch(organization=org, label="other")
+        communicator, connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert connected is True
+        other, other_connected = await self._connect(other_batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert other_connected is True
+        watcher, watcher_connected = await self._connect(batch.pk, admin_user)
+        assert watcher_connected is True
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            command = await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device_conn.device,
+                connection=device_conn,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+        created = await self._receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
+        assert created["id"] == str(command.pk)
+        assert created["index"] == 0
+        assert created["affected_devices"] == 1
+        assert created["total_rows"] == 1
+        assert created["device_name"] == device_conn.device.name
+        assert "input" not in created
+        assert await self._receive_until(watcher, "command_update") == created
+        assert await communicator.receive_nothing() is True
+        command.status = "success"
+        command.output = "done"
+        await database_sync_to_async(command.save)()
+        updated = await self._receive_until(communicator, "command_update")
+        assert updated["status"] == "success"
+        assert updated["output"] == "done"
+        assert "index" not in updated
+        await self._drain(communicator)
+        await self._set_skipped(batch, 2)
+        status = await self._receive_until(communicator, "batch_status")
+        assert status["skipped_count"] == 2
+        assert [row["device_name"] for row in status["skipped_preview"]] == [
+            "skipped0",
+            "skipped1",
+        ]
+        assert status["affected_devices"] == 1
+        assert status["total_rows"] == 3
+        # updates are namespaced per batch
+        assert await other.receive_nothing() is True
+        with mock.patch.object(
+            apps.layers, "get_channel_layer", side_effect=RuntimeError("no layer")
+        ), mock.patch.object(apps, "logger") as logger, mock.patch.object(
+            Command, "_schedule_command"
+        ):
+            await database_sync_to_async(Command.objects.create)(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device_conn.device,
+                connection=device_conn,
+                type="custom",
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+            logger.exception.assert_called_once()
+        assert await database_sync_to_async(batch.batch_commands.count)() == 2
+        await communicator.disconnect()
+        await watcher.disconnect()
+        await other.disconnect()
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
index 379346bc2..b9a086319 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_admin.py
@@ -1,19 +1,28 @@
 import json
 from unittest.mock import patch
+from uuid import uuid4
 
+from django.contrib import admin
 from django.contrib.auth.models import Permission
+from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
 from django.test import TestCase, override_settings
 from django.urls import reverse
 from swapper import load_model
 
-from openwisp_controller.connection.commands import ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS
+from openwisp_controller.connection.commands import (
+    COMMANDS,
+    ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+    ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+)
 
 from ... import settings as module_settings
 from ...tests import _get_updated_templates_settings
 from ...tests.utils import TestAdminMixin
+from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin, BatchCommandExecutionForm
 from ..connectors.ssh import Ssh
+from ..filters import GroupFilter, LocationFilter, TypeFilter
 from ..widgets import CredentialsSchemaWidget
-from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin
+from .utils import BatchCommandMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin
 
 Template = load_model("config", "Template")
 Config = load_model("config", "Config")
@@ -22,6 +31,10 @@
 DeviceConnection = load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
 Group = load_model("openwisp_users", "Group")
+DeviceGroup = load_model("config", "DeviceGroup")
+Location = load_model("geo", "Location")
+DeviceLocation = load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 
 
 class TestConnectionAdmin(TestAdminMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin, TestCase):
@@ -280,3 +293,669 @@ def test_notification_host_setting(self, ctx_processors=[]):
             response = self.client.get(url)
             self.assertContains(response, "https://example.com")
             self.assertNotContains(response, "owControllerApiHost = window.location")
+
+
+class TestBatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommandMixin, TestCase):
+    app_label = "connection"
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        self._create_admin()
+        self.execute_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_execute")
+        self.confirm_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_confirm")
+        self.changelist_url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_changelist")
+
+    def test_wizard_permissions_and_tenant_isolation(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        device2 = self._create_device(
+            name="device2", mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:02", organization=org2
+        )
+        with self.subTest("view permission is not enough"):
+            viewer = self._create_operator(
+                organizations=[org], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
+            )
+            viewer.groups.clear()
+            viewer.user_permissions.set(
+                Permission.objects.filter(codename="view_batchcommand")
+            )
+            self.client.force_login(viewer)
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.execute_url).status_code, 403)
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.confirm_url).status_code, 403)
+        with self.subTest("the operator group can reach the wizard"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            self.assertFalse(
+                BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site).has_add_permission(None)
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(self.execute_url).status_code, 200)
+        with self.subTest("a target is required for non superusers"):
+            response = self._post_execute()
+            self.assertContains(response, "Please select at least one of")
+        with self.subTest("devices of unmanaged organizations are not reachable"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            wizard["organization_id"] = str(org2.pk)
+            session = self.client.session
+            session[BatchCommandAdmin.session_key] = wizard
+            session.save()
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertIn(
+                "No devices match the specified criteria.", self._messages(response)
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+        with self.subTest("superusers may target every device"):
+            self._login()
+            self._start_wizard()
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 2)
+            self.assertIn(device2, response.context["cl"].queryset)
+
+    def test_wizard_incompatible_scopes(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location2 = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location2", type="indoor", organization=org2
+        )
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org, org2])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        with self.subTest("group of another organization"):
+            response = self._post_execute(
+                organization=str(org.pk), group=str(group2.pk)
+            )
+            self.assertIn("group", response.context["form"].errors)
+        with self.subTest("location of another organization"):
+            response = self._post_execute(
+                organization=str(org.pk), location=str(location2.pk)
+            )
+            self.assertIn("location", response.context["form"].errors)
+        with self.subTest("the organization is derived from the group"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(group=str(group.pk))
+            self.assertEqual(wizard["group_id"], str(group.pk))
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 1)
+        with self.subTest("scopes which share no devices"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(
+                organization=str(org.pk),
+                group=str(group.pk),
+                location=str(location.pk),
+            )
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 0)
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertIn(
+                "No devices match the specified criteria.", self._messages(response)
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+            self.assertIn(device, Device.objects.all())
+
+    def test_wizard_form_fields(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        location2 = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location2", type="indoor", organization=org2
+        )
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        with self.subTest("choices are limited to the managed organizations"):
+            form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+            self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["organization"].queryset), [org])
+            self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["group"].queryset), [group])
+            self.assertEqual(list(form.fields["location"].queryset), [location])
+        with self.subTest("types are limited to the enabled commands"):
+            with patch.dict(ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS, {str(org.pk): ("reboot",)}):
+                form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+                choices = form.fields["type"].choices
+                self.assertEqual([value for value, _ in choices], ["", "reboot"])
+        with self.subTest("superusers are not restricted"):
+            self._login()
+            form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+            self.assertIn(group2, form.fields["group"].queryset)
+            self.assertIn(location2, form.fields["location"].queryset)
+            self.assertIn(org2, form.fields["organization"].queryset)
+
+    def test_wizard_schema_view(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_schema")
+        with self.subTest("superusers get every enabled type"):
+            self._login()
+            schemas = self.client.get(url).json()
+            form = self.client.get(self.execute_url).context["form"]
+            choices = {value for value, _ in form.fields["type"].choices if value}
+            self.assertEqual(set(schemas), choices)
+        with self.subTest("managers get the union of their organizations"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            with patch.dict(
+                ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+                {str(org.pk): {"reboot": COMMANDS["reboot"]["schema"]}},
+            ):
+                self.assertEqual(list(self.client.get(url).json()), ["reboot"])
+        with self.subTest("the add permission is required"):
+            viewer = self._create_operator(
+                organizations=[org], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
+            )
+            viewer.groups.clear()
+            viewer.user_permissions.set(
+                Permission.objects.filter(codename="view_batchcommand")
+            )
+            self.client.force_login(viewer)
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(url).status_code, 403)
+
+    def test_wizard_organization_guard_survives_a_wider_queryset(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        request = self.client.get(self.execute_url).wsgi_request
+        form = BatchCommandExecutionForm(
+            data={
+                "type": "custom",
+                "input": '{"command": "echo test"}',
+                "label": "test-label",
+                "notes": "",
+                "organization": "",
+                "group": str(group2.pk),
+                "location": "",
+            },
+            request=request,
+        )
+        form.fields["group"].queryset = DeviceGroup.objects.all()
+        self.assertFalse(form.is_valid())
+        self.assertEqual(form.errors["group"], ["Select a valid choice."])
+
+    def test_wizard_review_step_input(self):
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        cases = (
+            (None, ""),
+            ("not-a-mapping", ""),
+            ({"command": "uptime"}, "uptime"),
+            ({"config": "network"}, "config: network"),
+            (
+                {"service": "firewall", "action": "restart"},
+                "service: firewall, action: restart",
+            ),
+            ({"password": "tester123", "confirm_password": "tester123"}, ""),
+        )
+        for command_input, expected in cases:
+            with self.subTest(str(command_input)):
+                self.assertEqual(model_admin._describe_input(command_input), expected)
+
+    def test_wizard_recovers_from_unresolvable_targets(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._login()
+        with self.subTest("a confirm page without a wizard restarts"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+        with self.subTest("targets which cannot be resolved list no devices"):
+            self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            with patch.object(
+                BatchCommand, "dry_run", side_effect=ValidationError("broken")
+            ):
+                response = self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+                self.assertEqual(response.context["device_count"], 0)
+        with self.subTest("a batch which disappears restarts"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            with patch.object(BatchCommand, "execute", side_effect=Device.DoesNotExist):
+                response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+
+    def test_wizard_stale_and_parallel_sessions(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._login()
+        restart_message = "Please fill in the mass command details to continue."
+        with self.subTest("no wizard in the session"):
+            response = self._post_confirm("any-token")
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+        with self.subTest("a token from another tab"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            response = self._post_confirm("stale-token")
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+        with self.subTest("double submit"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.execute_url)
+            self.assertIn(restart_message, self._messages(response))
+            self.assertEqual(list(BatchCommand.objects.all()), [batch])
+        BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+        with self.subTest("the targeted devices changed"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._create_device(
+                name="late-device",
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:99",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            response = self._post_confirm(wizard["token"])
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "The targeted devices changed, please review them again.",
+                self._messages(response),
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+            self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+
+    def test_wizard_device_selection(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        devices = [self._create_device(organization=org)]
+        devices += [
+            self._create_device(
+                name=f"device{index}",
+                mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:44:0{index}",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            for index in range(1, 4)
+        ]
+        self._login()
+        with self.subTest("excluded devices are left out"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._post_confirm(wizard["token"], excluded=str(devices[-1].pk))
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
+            self.assertEqual(set(batch.devices.all()), set(devices[:-1]))
+        BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+        with self.subTest("malformed entries are ignored"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            self._post_confirm(
+                wizard["token"],
+                excluded=f",not-a-uuid,,{uuid4()},{devices[0].pk},",
+            )
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get()
+            self.assertEqual(set(batch.devices.all()), set(devices[1:]))
+        BatchCommand.objects.all().delete()
+        with self.subTest("excluding every device"):
+            wizard = self._start_wizard(organization=str(org.pk))
+            self.client.get(self.confirm_url)
+            response = self._post_confirm(
+                wizard["token"],
+                excluded=",".join(str(device.pk) for device in devices),
+            )
+            self.assertRedirects(response, self.confirm_url)
+            self.assertIn(
+                "No devices match the specified criteria.", self._messages(response)
+            )
+            self.assertFalse(BatchCommand.objects.exists())
+            self.assertIn(BatchCommandAdmin.session_key, self.client.session)
+
+    def test_changelist_multitenancy(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="other-label")
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        with self.subTest("only managed organizations are listed"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+            self.assertIn(batch, queryset)
+            self.assertNotIn(batch2, queryset)
+        with self.subTest("an unmanaged batch cannot be opened"):
+            url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch2.pk])
+            self.assertEqual(self.client.get(url).status_code, 302)
+        with self.subTest("superusers see every batch"):
+            self._login()
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+            self.assertIn(batch, queryset)
+            self.assertIn(batch2, queryset)
+
+    def test_changelist_filters_and_search(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org, group=group, devices=[device]
+        )
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org2,
+            label="other-label",
+            type="reboot",
+            input=None,
+            status="success",
+        )
+        self._login()
+        cases = (
+            ("status", {"status": "success"}, batch2),
+            ("type", {"type": "custom"}, batch),
+            ("group", {"group_id": str(group.pk)}, batch),
+            ("search by label", {"q": "other-label"}, batch2),
+            ("search by device name", {"q": device.name}, batch),
+            ("search by group name", {"q": "group1"}, batch),
+        )
+        for name, params, expected in cases:
+            with self.subTest(name):
+                response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, params)
+                queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+                self.assertEqual(list(queryset), [expected])
+        with self.subTest("combined filters exclude everything"):
+            response = self.client.get(
+                self.changelist_url, {"status": "success", "type": "custom"}
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(response.context["cl"].queryset.count(), 0)
+        with self.subTest("affected devices is orderable and not duplicated"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, {"o": "5"})
+            queryset = response.context["cl"].queryset
+            self.assertEqual(set(queryset), {batch, batch2})
+            self.assertEqual([item._affected_devices for item in queryset], [0, 0])
+
+    def test_changelist_is_read_only(self):
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=self._get_org())
+        self._login()
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+        with self.subTest("no bulk actions"):
+            self.assertNotIn(
+                "delete_selected", model_admin.get_actions(response.wsgi_request)
+            )
+        with self.subTest("adding and deleting are disabled"):
+            self.assertFalse(model_admin.has_add_permission(response.wsgi_request))
+            self.assertFalse(
+                model_admin.has_delete_permission(response.wsgi_request, batch)
+            )
+        with self.subTest("no save buttons on the change page"):
+            url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            self.assertFalse(response.context["show_save"])
+            self.assertFalse(response.context["show_save_and_continue"])
+
+    def _create_commands(self, batch, devices, **kwargs):
+        commands = []
+        for device in devices:
+            if not hasattr(device, "config"):
+                self._create_config(device=device)
+            connection = self._create_device_connection(
+                device=device,
+                credentials=self._create_credentials(
+                    name=f"cred-{device.name}", organization=device.organization
+                ),
+            )
+            with patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+                commands.append(
+                    Command.objects.create(
+                        batch_command=batch,
+                        device=device,
+                        connection=connection,
+                        type="custom",
+                        input={"command": "echo test"},
+                        **kwargs,
+                    )
+                )
+        return commands
+
+    def test_change_view_command_rows(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        devices = [self._create_device(organization=org)] + [
+            self._create_device(
+                name=f"device{index}",
+                mac_address=f"00:11:22:33:44:0{index}",
+                organization=org,
+            )
+            for index in range(1, 4)
+        ]
+        commands = self._create_commands(batch, devices, output="first\nlast")
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": "skipped-device", "error": "no credentials"}
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        self._login()
+        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        with patch.object(BatchCommandAdmin, "device_commands_per_page", 3):
+            with self.subTest("first page"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    [row["device_name"] for row in rows],
+                    [command.device.name for command in commands[:3]],
+                )
+                self.assertEqual(rows[0]["output"], "… last")
+                self.assertEqual(rows[0]["status_display"], "in progress")
+                self.assertFalse(rows[0]["is_skipped"])
+            with self.subTest("the page spanning commands and skipped devices"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 2}).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [False, True])
+                self.assertEqual(rows[-1]["device_name"], "skipped-device")
+            with self.subTest("an unusable page falls back to the first"):
+                for page in ("abc", 0, 99):
+                    response = self.client.get(url, {"page": page})
+                    self.assertEqual(response.context["page_obj"].number, 1)
+            with self.subTest("the newest command is last"):
+                rows = self.client.get(url, {"page": 2}).context["commands"]
+                self.assertEqual(rows[0]["device"], commands[-1].device.pk)
+
+    def test_change_view_filters(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org, group=group)
+        DeviceLocation.objects.create(content_object=device, location=location)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, group=group)
+        other_group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="skipped-group", organization=org)
+        skipped_device = self._create_device(
+            name="skipped-device",
+            mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:88",
+            organization=org,
+            group=other_group,
+        )
+        self._create_commands(batch, [device], status="success")
+        batch.skipped_devices = {
+            str(skipped_device.pk): {
+                "name": skipped_device.name,
+                "error": "no credentials",
+            }
+        }
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+        self._login()
+        url = reverse("admin:connection_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+        with self.subTest("search matches commands and skipped devices"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"q": device.name}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], [device.name])
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"q": "skipped"}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], ["skipped-device"])
+        with self.subTest("status skipped hides the commands"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"status": "skipped"}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [True])
+        with self.subTest("status success hides the skipped devices"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"status": "success"}).context["commands"]
+            self.assertEqual([row["is_skipped"] for row in rows], [False])
+        with self.subTest("groups of skipped devices are offered as filters"):
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            titles = {
+                str(spec.title): spec for spec in response.context["filter_specs"]
+            }
+            displays = [
+                str(choice["display"]) for choice in titles["device group"].choices
+            ]
+            self.assertIn(other_group.name, displays)
+            self.assertIn(group.name, displays)
+        with self.subTest("filtering by a group keeps only its devices"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"group_id": str(other_group.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual([row["device_name"] for row in rows], ["skipped-device"])
+        with self.subTest("filtering by location"):
+            DeviceLocation.objects.create(
+                content_object=skipped_device, location=location
+            )
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"location_id": str(location.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(row["device_name"] for row in rows),
+                sorted([device.name, "skipped-device"]),
+            )
+        with self.subTest("filtering by organization"):
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"organization_id": str(org.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(row["device_name"] for row in rows),
+                sorted([device.name, "skipped-device"]),
+            )
+            rows = self.client.get(url, {"organization_id": str(org2.pk)}).context[
+                "commands"
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(rows, [])
+        with self.subTest("the organization filter is for superusers only"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            response = self.client.get(url)
+            titles = [str(spec.title) for spec in response.context["filter_specs"]]
+            self.assertNotIn("organization", titles)
+            self._login()
+        with self.subTest("the search term is not an active filter"):
+            response = self.client.get(url, {"q": "anything"})
+            self.assertFalse(response.context["has_active_filters"])
+            response = self.client.get(url, {"status": "success"})
+            self.assertTrue(response.context["has_active_filters"])
+
+    def test_change_view_display_fields(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        with self.subTest("organization display"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.organization_display(batch), org.name)
+            shared = self._create_batch_command(organization=None, label="shared")
+            self.assertEqual(str(model_admin.organization_display(shared)), "All")
+        with self.subTest("colored status"):
+            self.assertIn(
+                f"command-status {batch.status}", model_admin.colored_status(batch)
+            )
+        with self.subTest("formatted input"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(batch), "echo test")
+            empty_batch = self._create_batch_command(
+                organization=org, label="empty", type="reboot", input=None
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(empty_batch), "-")
+            registered_batch = self._create_batch_command(
+                organization=org, label="registered"
+            )
+            registered_batch.input = {"config": "network"}
+            self.assertEqual(
+                model_admin.formatted_input(registered_batch), "config: network"
+            )
+            password_batch = self._create_batch_command(
+                organization=org,
+                label="password",
+                type="change_password",
+                input={"password": "tester123", "confirm_password": "tester123"},
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.formatted_input(password_batch), "********")
+        with self.subTest("affected devices falls back to the model"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.affected_devices(batch), 0)
+            batch._affected_devices = 7
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.affected_devices(batch), 7)
+        with self.subTest("skipped devices rendering"):
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin.display_skipped_devices(batch), "-")
+            batch.skipped_devices = {
+                str(uuid4()): {"name": f"device{index}", "error": "failed"}
+                for index in range(12)
+            }
+            rendered = model_admin.display_skipped_devices(batch)
+            self.assertIn("12", rendered)
+            self.assertIn("device0: failed", rendered)
+            self.assertIn("…", rendered)
+        with self.subTest("commands of unmanaged organizations are hidden"):
+            device2 = self._create_device(
+                name="device-org2",
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:44:77",
+                organization=org2,
+            )
+            self._create_commands(batch, [device2])
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+            request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
+            request.user = operator
+            self.assertEqual(model_admin._get_commands(request, batch).count(), 0)
+
+    def test_changelist_filter_classes(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        group = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group1", organization=org)
+        location = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location1", type="indoor", organization=org
+        )
+        group2 = DeviceGroup.objects.create(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location2 = Location.objects.create(
+            name="location2", type="indoor", organization=org2
+        )
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org, group=group)
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org2, label="other-label", type="reboot", input=None
+        )
+        model_admin = BatchCommandAdmin(BatchCommand, admin.site)
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org])
+        self.client.force_login(operator)
+        request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
+        with self.subTest("type lookups are limited to the managed organizations"):
+            type_filter = TypeFilter(request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                type_filter.lookups(request, model_admin),
+                [("custom", "Custom commands")],
+            )
+        with self.subTest("type lookups list every type for superusers"):
+            self._login()
+            admin_request = self.client.get(self.changelist_url).wsgi_request
+            type_filter = TypeFilter(admin_request, {}, BatchCommand, model_admin)
+            lookups = dict(type_filter.lookups(admin_request, model_admin))
+            self.assertEqual(set(lookups), {"custom", "reboot"})
+        with self.subTest("type queryset"):
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url, {"type": "reboot"})
+            self.assertEqual(list(response.context["cl"].queryset), [batch2])
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(set(response.context["cl"].queryset), {batch, batch2})
+        with self.subTest("the parameter names match the change page filters"):
+            self.assertEqual(GroupFilter.parameter_name, "group_id")
+            self.assertEqual(LocationFilter.parameter_name, "location_id")
+        with self.subTest("the filters are on the changelist"):
+            self.client.force_login(operator)
+            response = self.client.get(self.changelist_url)
+            specs = {type(spec) for spec in response.context["cl"].filter_specs}
+            self.assertIn(GroupFilter, specs)
+            self.assertIn(LocationFilter, specs)
+        with self.subTest("related choices are limited to the managed organizations"):
+            self._create_administrator(organizations=[org])
+            self._test_multitenant_admin(
+                url=self._get_autocomplete_view_path(
+                    self.app_label, "batchcommand", "group"
+                ),
+                visible=[group.name],
+                hidden=[group2.name],
+                administrator=True,
+            )
+            self._test_multitenant_admin(
+                url=self._get_autocomplete_view_path(
+                    self.app_label, "batchcommand", "location"
+                ),
+                visible=[location.name],
+                hidden=[location2.name],
+                administrator=True,
+            )
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
index 963f625b9..04f365df8 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_models.py
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 import paramiko
 from django.contrib.auth.models import ContentType
 from django.core.exceptions import ValidationError
+from django.db import transaction
 from django.test import TestCase, TransactionTestCase, tag
 from django.utils import timezone
 from django.utils.module_loading import import_string
@@ -13,6 +14,7 @@
 
 from openwisp_utils.tests import capture_any_output, catch_signal
 
+from .. import apps
 from .. import settings as app_settings
 from ..commands import (
     COMMANDS,
@@ -525,6 +527,31 @@ def test_command_is_custom(self):
         command = Command(type="custom", input={"command": "echo test"})
         self.assertTrue(command.is_custom)
 
+    def test_command_output_preview(self):
+        with self.subTest("no output"):
+            self.assertEqual(Command(type="reboot").output_preview, "")
+            self.assertEqual(Command(type="reboot", output="").output_preview, "")
+
+        with self.subTest("single line"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="all good")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, "all good")
+
+        with self.subTest("single line with trailing newline"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="all good\n")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, "all good")
+
+        with self.subTest("single long line"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="x" * 120)
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, f"… {'x' * 100}")
+
+        with self.subTest("multiple lines"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output="first\nsecond\nlast")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, "… last")
+
+        with self.subTest("multiple lines with a long last line"):
+            command = Command(type="reboot", output=f"first\n{'y' * 120}")
+            self.assertEqual(command.output_preview, f"… {'y' * 100}")
+
     def test_command_validation(self):
         dc = self._create_device_connection()
         command = Command(
@@ -1028,6 +1055,77 @@ def test_batch_command_total_devices_successful_failed(self):
             batch.batch_commands.filter(status="failed", device=device1).exists()
         )
 
+    def test_batch_command_skipped_devices(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        skipped = {
+            str(uuid4()): {"name": f"device{index}", "error": f"error {index}"}
+            for index in range(3)
+        }
+        pks = list(skipped)
+        batch.skipped_devices = skipped
+        batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+
+        with self.subTest("skipped row"):
+            row = BatchCommand.build_skipped_row(pks[0], skipped[pks[0]])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                row,
+                {
+                    "device": pks[0],
+                    "device_name": "device0",
+                    "status": "skipped",
+                    "status_display": "skipped",
+                    "output": "error 0",
+                    "modified": None,
+                    "is_skipped": True,
+                },
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("all rows"):
+            rows = batch.get_skipped_rows()
+            self.assertEqual([row["device"] for row in rows], pks)
+
+        with self.subTest("sliced rows"):
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_rows(end=2)], pks[:2]
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_rows(start=-1)], pks[-1:]
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("preview within the limit"):
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_preview()], pks
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("preview above the limit"):
+            skipped = {
+                str(uuid4()): {"name": f"device{index}", "error": f"error {index}"}
+                for index in range(11)
+            }
+            pks = list(skipped)
+            batch.skipped_devices = skipped
+            batch.save(update_fields=["skipped_devices"])
+            self.assertEqual(
+                [row["device"] for row in batch.get_skipped_preview()],
+                pks[:2] + pks[-1:],
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("counts include skipped devices"):
+            device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+            self._create_config(device=device)
+            dc = self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+            Command.objects.create(
+                batch_command=batch,
+                device=device,
+                connection=dc,
+                type=batch.type,
+                input={"command": "echo test"},
+                status="success",
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(batch.affected_devices, 1)
+            self.assertEqual(batch.total_devices, 12)
+
     def test_batch_command_clean_validation(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
@@ -1236,6 +1334,10 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
             self.assertEqual(command_qs.count(), 1)
             self.assertTrue(command_qs.filter(device=device_ok).exists())
             self.assertIn(str(device_no_creds.pk), batch.skipped_devices)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)]["name"],
+                device_no_creds.name,
+            )
             self.assertIn(
                 "Device has no credentials assigned",
                 batch.skipped_devices[str(device_no_creds.pk)]["error"],
@@ -1249,6 +1351,19 @@ def test_batch_command_create_commands_skip_scenarios(self):
             db_batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(pk=batch.pk)
             self.assertEqual(batch.skipped_devices, db_batch.skipped_devices)
 
+    def test_batch_command_create_commands_without_explicit_devices(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._create_config(device=device)
+        self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        batch.create_commands()
+        batch.refresh_from_db()
+        self.assertEqual(
+            [command.device for command in batch.batch_commands.all()], [device]
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(list(batch.devices.all()), [device])
+
     def test_batch_command_resolve_devices(self):
         org = self._get_org()
         device1 = self._create_device(
@@ -2072,3 +2187,32 @@ def test_chunk_size(self):
                 credential = self._create_credentials(
                     name="Mocked Credential", auto_add=True, organization=org
                 )
+
+    def test_batch_command_broadcast_deferred_to_commit(self):
+        org = self._get_org()
+        device = self._create_device(organization=org)
+        self._create_config(device=device)
+        dc = self._create_device_connection(device=device)
+        batch = self._create_batch_command(organization=org)
+        command_opts = dict(
+            batch_command=batch,
+            device=device,
+            connection=dc,
+            type=batch.type,
+            input={"command": "echo test"},
+        )
+        with mock.patch.object(Command, "_schedule_command"):
+            with self.subTest("nothing is sent before the transaction commits"):
+                with mock.patch.object(apps.layers, "get_channel_layer") as layer:
+                    with transaction.atomic():
+                        Command.objects.create(**command_opts)
+                        layer.assert_not_called()
+                    layer.assert_called()
+            with self.subTest("a rolled back command is never broadcast"):
+                with mock.patch.object(apps.layers, "get_channel_layer") as layer:
+                    with self.assertRaises(ValueError):
+                        with transaction.atomic():
+                            Command.objects.create(**command_opts)
+                            raise ValueError()
+                    layer.assert_not_called()
+        self.assertEqual(batch.batch_commands.count(), 1)
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
index 73f9c672f..d0f5094ce 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/test_selenium.py
@@ -1,16 +1,47 @@
 from time import sleep
+from urllib.parse import quote, urlparse
+from uuid import UUID
 
+from channels.testing import ChannelsLiveServerTestCase
+from django.apps import apps as django_apps
+from django.contrib.auth.models import Permission
 from django.contrib.staticfiles.testing import StaticLiveServerTestCase
 from django.test import tag
 from django.urls import reverse
 from selenium.webdriver.common.by import By
+from selenium.webdriver.support import expected_conditions as EC
+from selenium.webdriver.support.ui import WebDriverWait
 from swapper import load_model
 
+from openwisp_users.migrations import (
+    allow_operator_view_organization,
+    create_default_groups,
+)
 from openwisp_utils.tests import SeleniumTestMixin
 
-from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin
+from ...config import migrations as config_migrations
+from ...config.tests.utils import CreateDeviceGroupMixin
+from ...geo import migrations as geo_migrations
+from ...geo.tests.utils import TestGeoMixin
+from .. import migrations as connection_migrations
+from .. import settings as app_settings
+from ..commands import (
+    COMMANDS,
+    ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA,
+    ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS,
+    register_command,
+    unregister_command,
+)
+from .utils import CreateConnectionsMixin, SshServer, _uci_show_command_callable
 
+BatchCommand = load_model("connection", "BatchCommand")
 Command = load_model("connection", "Command")
+Device = load_model("config", "Device")
+Location = load_model("geo", "Location")
+DeviceLocation = load_model("geo", "DeviceLocation")
+Group = load_model("openwisp_users", "Group")
+SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID = "11111111-1111-1111-1111-111111111111"
+DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID = "22222222-2222-2222-2222-222222222222"
 
 
 @tag("selenium_tests")
@@ -68,3 +99,1047 @@ def test_command_widget_on_device(self):
             ),
         )
         self.assertEqual(Command.objects.count(), 1)
+
+
+@tag("selenium_tests")
+class TestBatchCommandAdmin(
+    TestGeoMixin,
+    CreateDeviceGroupMixin,
+    CreateConnectionsMixin,
+    SeleniumTestMixin,
+    ChannelsLiveServerTestCase,
+):
+    app_label = "connection"
+    config_app_label = "config"
+    object_model = Device
+    location_model = Location
+    object_location_model = DeviceLocation
+
+    @classmethod
+    def setUpClass(cls):
+        if "uci_show" not in COMMANDS:
+            register_command(
+                "uci_show",
+                {
+                    "label": "UCI show",
+                    "schema": {
+                        "title": "UCI show",
+                        "type": "object",
+                        "required": ["config"],
+                        "properties": {
+                            "config": {
+                                "type": "string",
+                                "title": "Config",
+                                "minLength": 1,
+                                "pattern": ".",
+                            }
+                        },
+                        "message": "Config cannot be empty.",
+                        "additionalProperties": False,
+                    },
+                    "callable": _uci_show_command_callable,
+                },
+            )
+            cls.addClassCleanup(unregister_command, "uci_show")
+        ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS[SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID] = (
+            "custom",
+            "reboot",
+            "change_password",
+            "uci_show",
+        )
+        ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS[DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID] = (
+            "custom",
+            "reboot",
+            "change_password",
+        )
+        for organization_id in (SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID, DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID):
+            ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA[organization_id] = {
+                command: COMMANDS[command]["schema"]
+                for command in ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS[organization_id]
+            }
+            cls.addClassCleanup(
+                ORGANIZATION_ENABLED_COMMANDS.pop, organization_id, None
+            )
+            cls.addClassCleanup(ORGANIZATION_COMMAND_SCHEMA.pop, organization_id, None)
+        super().setUpClass()
+        cls.mock_ssh_server = SshServer(
+            {"root": cls._TEST_RSA_PRIVATE_KEY_PATH}
+        ).__enter__()
+        cls.addClassCleanup(cls.mock_ssh_server.__exit__)
+        cls.ssh_server.port = cls.mock_ssh_server.port
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        super().setUp()
+        self._restore_default_groups()
+        self.execute_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_execute")
+        self.confirm_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_confirm")
+        self.changelist_url = reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_changelist")
+
+    # this is a TransactionTestCase: the flush performed after every test
+    # restores what post_migrate creates (permissions, content types) but
+    # not the rows written by data migrations, so the default groups are
+    # lost and _create_operator() would return a user without permissions
+    def _restore_default_groups(self):
+        if Group.objects.filter(name="Operator").exists():
+            return
+        models_modules = {
+            app_config.label: app_config.models_module
+            for app_config in django_apps.get_app_configs()
+        }
+        try:
+            for migration in (
+                create_default_groups,
+                allow_operator_view_organization,
+                config_migrations.assign_permissions_to_groups,
+                config_migrations.assign_devicegroup_permissions_to_groups,
+                geo_migrations.assign_permissions_to_groups,
+                connection_migrations.assign_permissions_to_groups,
+                connection_migrations.assign_command_permissions_to_groups,
+                connection_migrations.assign_batchcommand_permissions_to_groups,
+            ):
+                migration(django_apps, None)
+        finally:
+            for app_config in django_apps.get_app_configs():
+                app_config.models_module = models_modules[app_config.label]
+
+    def _create_devices(self, organization, count, credentials=None):
+        if credentials is None:
+            credentials = self._create_credentials(
+                organization=organization,
+                params={"username": "root", "password": "password", "port": 5555},
+            )
+        devices = []
+        for index in range(count):
+            device = self._create_device(
+                name=f"device-{index:03d}",
+                organization=organization,
+                mac_address="00:11:22:33:{:02x}:{:02x}".format(
+                    index // 256, index % 256
+                ),
+            )
+            self._create_device_connection(
+                device=device,
+                credentials=credentials,
+                update_strategy=app_settings.UPDATE_STRATEGIES[0][0],
+            )
+            devices.append(device)
+        return devices
+
+    def _select2(self, field_id, text):
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f"#select2-{field_id}-container"
+        ).click()
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            value=".select2-container--open .select2-search__field",
+        ).send_keys(text)
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            value=".select2-container--open .select2-results__option--highlighted",
+            timeout=5,
+        ).click()
+        self.wait_for_invisibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".select2-container--open")
+
+    def _fill_wizard(
+        self,
+        type,
+        label,
+        organization=None,
+        group=None,
+        location=None,
+        command_input=None,
+        open_page=True,
+    ):
+        if open_page:
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+        self.web_driver.execute_script(
+            "django.jQuery('#id_group, #id_location').val('').trigger('change');"
+        )
+        self._select2("id_type", type)
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#select2-id_type-container"
+            ).get_attribute("title"),
+            type,
+        )
+        for field_name, value in (command_input or {}).items():
+            field = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=f"#id_input_jsoneditor [name='root[{field_name}]']",
+                timeout=5,
+            )
+            field.clear()
+            field.send_keys(value)
+            self.assertEqual(field.get_attribute("value"), value)
+        label_field = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="id_label")
+        label_field.clear()
+        label_field.send_keys(label)
+        self.assertEqual(label_field.get_attribute("value"), label)
+        for field_id, target in (
+            ("id_organization", organization),
+            ("id_group", group),
+            ("id_location", location),
+        ):
+            if target:
+                self._select2(field_id, target.name)
+                self.assertEqual(
+                    self.find_element(
+                        by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f"#select2-{field_id}-container"
+                    ).get_attribute("title"),
+                    target.name,
+                )
+
+    def _open_menu_item(self, group_label, item_label):
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f'.mg-head[aria-label="{group_label}"]'
+        ).click()
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            value=f'.menu-group.active a.mg-link[aria-label="{item_label}"]',
+            timeout=5,
+        ).click()
+
+    def _search(self, query):
+        table = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list")
+        search_field = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="searchbar")
+        search_field.clear()
+        search_field.send_keys(query)
+        search_field.submit()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: f"q={quote(query)}" in driver.current_url
+        )
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(table))
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
+    def _filter_by(self, title, option):
+        current_url = self.web_driver.current_url
+        tables = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
+        slug = title.replace(" ", "-")
+        filter_element = self.find_element(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=f".ow-filter.{slug}", wait_for="presence"
+        )
+        self.web_driver.execute_script(
+            "arguments[0].click();",
+            filter_element.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".filter-title"),
+        )
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: "ow-active" in filter_element.get_attribute("class")
+        )
+        self.web_driver.execute_script(
+            "arguments[0].click();",
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.XPATH,
+                value=(
+                    "//div[contains(@class, 'ow-filter')]"
+                    f"[contains(@class, '{slug}')]"
+                    "//div[contains(@class, 'filter-options')]"
+                    f"//a[normalize-space()='{option}']"
+                ),
+                wait_for="presence",
+            ),
+        )
+        apply_filters = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.ID, "ow-apply-filter")
+        if apply_filters:
+            apply_filters[0].click()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: driver.current_url != current_url
+        )
+        if tables:
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(tables[0]))
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
+    def _open_autocomplete_filter(self, param_name):
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.XPATH,
+            value=(
+                f"//div[@id='ow-changelist-filter']//select[@name='{param_name}']"
+                "/following-sibling::span[contains(@class, 'select2')]"
+            ),
+        ).click()
+        self.wait_for_invisibility(
+            By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".select2-results__option.loading-results"
+        )
+
+    def _autocomplete_options(self, param_name):
+        self._open_autocomplete_filter(param_name)
+        options = [
+            option.text
+            for option in self.find_elements(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=".select2-container--open .select2-results__option",
+            )
+        ]
+        self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#content").click()
+        return options
+
+    def _filter_by_autocomplete(self, param_name, option):
+        current_url = self.web_driver.current_url
+        tables = self.web_driver.find_elements(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "#result_list")
+        self._open_autocomplete_filter(param_name)
+        self.find_element(
+            by=By.XPATH,
+            value=(
+                "//li[contains(@class, 'select2-results__option')]"
+                f"[normalize-space()='{option}']"
+            ),
+        ).click()
+        self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="ow-apply-filter").click()
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: driver.current_url != current_url
+        )
+        if tables:
+            WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(EC.staleness_of(tables[0]))
+        self.hide_loading_overlay()
+
+    def _filter_options(self, title):
+        slug = title.replace(" ", "-")
+        return [
+            option.get_attribute("textContent").strip()
+            for option in self.web_driver.find_elements(
+                By.CSS_SELECTOR, f".ow-filter.{slug} .filter-options a"
+            )
+        ]
+
+    def _changelist_labels(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "th.field-label").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _select_options(self, field_id):
+        return [
+            option.text
+            for option in self.find_elements(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+                value=f"#{field_id} option",
+                wait_for="presence",
+            )
+            if option.get_attribute("value")
+        ]
+
+    def _wait_for_url(self, path, timeout=None):
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, timeout or 5).until(
+            lambda driver: urlparse(driver.current_url).path == path
+        )
+        self.assertEqual(urlparse(self.web_driver.current_url).path, path)
+
+    def _wait_for_review_page(self):
+        self._wait_for_url(self.confirm_url)
+        self.wait_for_visibility(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".command-summary", timeout=5)
+
+    def _wait_for_batch_result(self, label, status, count):
+        batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(label=label)
+        self._wait_for_url(
+            reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk]),
+            # the test env runs celery synchronously,
+            # so 50 commands take a while
+            timeout=30,
+        )
+        self.wait_for_visibility(
+            By.CSS_SELECTOR, "ul.messagelist li.success", timeout=5
+        )
+        self.wait_for_visibility(
+            By.CSS_SELECTOR,
+            f".field-colored_status .command-status.{status}",
+            timeout=5,
+        )
+        WebDriverWait(self.web_driver, 5).until(
+            lambda driver: self._command_statuses() == [status] * count
+        )
+
+    def _rows(self):
+        return self.find_elements(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody tr")
+
+    def _device_names(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "th.field-name").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _command_device_names(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "td:first-child").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _command_statuses(self):
+        return [
+            row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".command-status").text
+            for row in self._rows()
+        ]
+
+    def _summary(self):
+        summary = {}
+        for row in self.find_elements(
+            by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".command-summary .form-row"
+        ):
+            summary[row.find_element(By.TAG_NAME, "label").text] = row.find_element(
+                By.CSS_SELECTOR, ".readonly"
+            ).text
+        return summary
+
+    def test_execute_batch_command(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        devices1 = self._create_devices(org1, 5)
+        devices2 = self._create_devices(
+            org2,
+            2,
+            credentials=self._create_credentials_with_key(
+                organization=org2, port=self.ssh_server.port
+            ),
+        )
+        grouped_device, located_device, *_ = devices1
+        group1 = self._create_device_group(name="group1", organization=org1)
+        location1 = self._create_location(name="location1", organization=org1)
+        group2 = self._create_device_group(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location2 = self._create_location(name="location2", organization=org2)
+        grouped_device.group = group1
+        grouped_device.full_clean()
+        grouped_device.save()
+        self._create_object_location(content_object=located_device, location=location1)
+        self.login()
+
+        with self.subTest("custom command"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Custom commands",
+                label="small-custom",
+                organization=org2,
+                command_input={"command": "echo test"},
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Custom commands")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Command"], "echo test")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Label"], "small-custom")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org2.name)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "2 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [device.name for device in devices2])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-custom", "success", 2)
+            label = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-label .readonly"
+            )
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(label.text, "small-custom")
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Custom commands")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "echo test")
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "2")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+                sorted(device.name for device in devices2),
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["success", "success"])
+
+        with self.subTest("reboot"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="small-reboot", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Reboot")
+            self.assertNotIn("Command", summary)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "5 devices")
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-reboot", "failed", 5)
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "-")
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "5")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+                sorted(device.name for device in devices1),
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 5)
+
+        with self.subTest("change password"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Change password",
+                label="small-password",
+                organization=org1,
+                command_input={
+                    "password": "tester123",
+                    "confirm_password": "tester123",
+                },
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Change password")
+            self.assertNotIn("Command", summary)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-password", "failed", 5)
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Change password")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "********")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 5)
+
+        with self.subTest("device group target"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Reboot",
+                label="small-group",
+                organization=org1,
+                group=group1,
+            )
+            group_options = self._select_options("id_group")
+            self.assertEqual(group_options, [group1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(group2.name, group_options)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], f"{org1.name}, {group1.name}")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-group", "failed", 1)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"])
+
+        with self.subTest("location target"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Reboot",
+                label="small-location",
+                organization=org1,
+                location=location1,
+            )
+            location_options = self._select_options("id_location")
+            self.assertEqual(location_options, [location1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(location2.name, location_options)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], f"{org1.name}, {location1.name}")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "1 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [located_device.name])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-location", "failed", 1)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [located_device.name])
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"])
+
+        with self.subTest("excluded devices"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="small-excluded", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            checkbox = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            )
+            excluded_pk = checkbox.get_attribute("value")
+            checkbox.click()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            execute_button = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button")
+            excluded_field = self.find_element(
+                by=By.ID, value="id_excluded", wait_for="presence"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "4")
+            self.assertEqual(execute_button.text, "Execute on 4 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(excluded_field.get_attribute("value"), excluded_pk)
+            execute_button.click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("small-excluded", "failed", 4)
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            device_pks = [row.get_attribute("data-device-pk") for row in self._rows()]
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "4")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 4)
+            self.assertNotIn(excluded_pk, device_pks)
+
+        self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
+
+    def test_execute_large_batch(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        devices = self._create_devices(org1, 50)
+        device_names = [device.name for device in devices]
+        per_page = 20
+        second_page_end = per_page * 2
+        first_page = device_names[:per_page]
+        second_page = device_names[per_page:second_page_end]
+        self.login()
+        self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="large-reboot", organization=org1)
+        self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+        self._wait_for_review_page()
+        summary = self._summary()
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Reboot")
+        self.assertNotIn("Command", summary)
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Label"], "large-reboot")
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org1.name)
+        self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "50 devices")
+
+        with self.subTest("the device table is paginated"):
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            paginator = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator")
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "50")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), first_page)
+            self.assertIn("50 devices", paginator.text.lower())
+
+        with self.subTest("select all toggles the devices of the page"):
+            select_all = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="select-all-devices")
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            select_all.click()
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "30")
+            select_all.click()
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "50")
+
+        with self.subTest("exclusions survive pagination"):
+            checkbox = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            )
+            excluded_pk = checkbox.get_attribute("value")
+            excluded_name = checkbox.get_attribute("aria-label").replace("Include ", "")
+            checkbox.click()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "49")
+            self.open(f"{self.confirm_url}?p=2")
+            self._wait_for_url(self.confirm_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            selected_count = self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="selected-count")
+            excluded_field = self.find_element(
+                by=By.ID, value="id_excluded", wait_for="presence"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), second_page)
+            self.assertEqual(selected_count.text, "49")
+            self.assertEqual(excluded_field.get_attribute("value"), excluded_pk)
+            self.open(self.confirm_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.confirm_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            checkbox = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list tbody .device-checkbox"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(checkbox.is_selected(), False)
+
+        with self.subTest("the excluded device is left out of the batch"):
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("large-reboot", "failed", 20)
+            label = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-label .readonly"
+            )
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            paginator = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator")
+            device_pks = [row.get_attribute("data-device-pk") for row in self._rows()]
+            command_names = self._command_device_names()
+            self.assertEqual(label.text, "large-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "-")
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "49")
+            self.assertEqual(len(command_names), 20)
+            self.assertEqual(paginator.text, "49 commands")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 20)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(command_names) - {device.name for device in devices}, set()
+            )
+            self.assertNotIn(excluded_name, command_names)
+            self.assertNotIn(excluded_pk, device_pks)
+
+        self.assertEqual(self.get_browser_errors(), [])
+
+    def test_batch_command_organization_isolation_and_permissions(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        devices1 = self._create_devices(org1, 2)
+        self._create_devices(org2, 2)
+        group1 = self._create_device_group(name="group1", organization=org1)
+        group2 = self._create_device_group(name="group2", organization=org2)
+        location1 = self._create_location(name="location1", organization=org1)
+        location2 = self._create_location(name="location2", organization=org2)
+        batch1 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org1, label="managed-batch")
+        batch2 = self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="unmanaged-batch")
+        operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org1])
+        self.login(username=operator.username, password="tester")
+
+        with self.subTest("the wizard only offers the managed organization"):
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            organization_options = self._select_options("id_organization")
+            self.assertEqual(organization_options, [org1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(org2.name, organization_options)
+
+        with self.subTest("targets of other organizations are not offered"):
+            self._select2("id_organization", org1.name)
+            group_options = self._select_options("id_group")
+            location_options = self._select_options("id_location")
+            self.assertEqual(group_options, [group1.name])
+            self.assertEqual(location_options, [location1.name])
+            self.assertNotIn(group2.name, group_options)
+            self.assertNotIn(location2.name, location_options)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist hides other organizations"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            labels = [
+                row.find_element(By.CSS_SELECTOR, "th.field-label").text
+                for row in self._rows()
+            ]
+            self.assertEqual(labels, [batch1.label])
+            self.assertNotIn(batch2.label, labels)
+
+        with self.subTest("a batch of another organization cannot be opened"):
+            self.open(
+                reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch2.pk])
+            )
+            self._wait_for_url(reverse("admin:index"))
+
+        with self.subTest("only the devices of the managed organization are targeted"):
+            self._fill_wizard(type="Reboot", label="isolated-reboot", organization=org1)
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "2 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [device.name for device in devices1])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("isolated-reboot", "failed", 2)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                sorted(self._command_device_names()),
+                sorted(device.name for device in devices1),
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 2)
+
+        with self.subTest("the view permission is not enough to execute"):
+            viewer = self._create_operator(
+                organizations=[org1], username="viewer", email="viewer@test.com"
+            )
+            viewer.groups.clear()
+            viewer.user_permissions.set(
+                Permission.objects.filter(codename="view_batchcommand")
+            )
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=viewer.username, password="tester")
+            self.web_driver.get(f"{self.live_server_url}{self.execute_url}")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.TAG_NAME, value="body").text,
+                "403 Forbidden",
+            )
+            self.web_driver.get(f"{self.live_server_url}{self.confirm_url}")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.TAG_NAME, value="body").text,
+                "403 Forbidden",
+            )
+
+    def test_batch_command_menu_search_and_filters(self):
+        org1 = self._get_org()
+        org2 = self._create_org(name="org2", slug="org2")
+        devices = self._create_devices(org1, 50)
+        searched_device, grouped_device, located_device, *_ = devices
+        self._create_devices(org2, 1)
+        group1 = self._create_device_group(name="group1", organization=org1)
+        location1 = self._create_location(name="location1", organization=org1)
+        grouped_device.group = group1
+        grouped_device.full_clean()
+        grouped_device.save()
+        self._create_object_location(content_object=located_device, location=location1)
+        self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="org2-batch")
+        self._create_batch_command(organization=org1, label="group-batch", group=group1)
+        self._create_batch_command(
+            organization=org1, label="location-batch", location=location1
+        )
+        self.login()
+
+        with self.subTest("the wizard is reachable from the menu"):
+            self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
+            self._open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command execute")
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the whole flow runs on every device"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="Reboot",
+                label="menu-reboot",
+                organization=org1,
+                open_page=False,
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Label"], "menu-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Targets"], org1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "50 devices")
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("menu-reboot", "failed", 20)
+            affected_devices = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-affected_devices .readonly"
+            )
+            paginator = self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator")
+            command_names = self._command_device_names()
+            self.assertEqual(affected_devices.text, "50")
+            self.assertEqual(paginator.text, "50 commands")
+            self.assertEqual(len(command_names), 20)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(command_names) - {device.name for device in devices}, set()
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 20)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist is reachable from the menu"):
+            self.open(reverse("admin:index"))
+            self._open_menu_item("Network Operations", "Mass command admin")
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self._changelist_labels(),
+                ["menu-reboot", "location-batch", "group-batch", "org2-batch"],
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist search matches the label"):
+            self._search("menu-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self._search("no-such-batch")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".paginator").text,
+                "0 Mass commands",
+            )
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist filters narrow the results"):
+            self._filter_by("status", "failed")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("status", "idle")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(self._changelist_labels()),
+                {"org2-batch", "group-batch", "location-batch"},
+            )
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("type", "Reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("type", "Custom commands")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                set(self._changelist_labels()),
+                {"org2-batch", "group-batch", "location-batch"},
+            )
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist autocomplete filters narrow the results"):
+            self._filter_by_autocomplete("organization", org2.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["org2-batch"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by_autocomplete("group_id", group1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["group-batch"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by_autocomplete("location_id", location1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["location-batch"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+
+        with self.subTest("the organization filter offers every organization"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            organization_options = self._autocomplete_options("organization")
+            self.assertIn(org1.name, organization_options)
+            self.assertIn(org2.name, organization_options)
+
+        with self.subTest("the batch is opened from the changelist"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.find_element(
+                by=By.XPATH,
+                value="//table[@id='result_list']//a[normalize-space()='menu-reboot']",
+            ).click()
+            batch = BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot")
+            self._wait_for_url(
+                reverse(f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change", args=[batch.pk])
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(len(self._rows()), 20)
+
+        with self.subTest("the command table is searchable"):
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._search(searched_device.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [searched_device.name])
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"])
+            self._search("no-such-device")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list .empty-results"
+                ).text,
+                "No commands found.",
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the command table is filterable"):
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("status", "failed")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 20)
+            self._filter_by("status", "success")
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self.find_element(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#result_list .empty-results"
+                ).text,
+                "No commands found.",
+            )
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("device group", group1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [grouped_device.name])
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("location", location1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_device_names(), [located_device.name])
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            self._filter_by("organization", org1.name)
+            self.assertEqual(len(self._command_device_names()), 20)
+
+        with self.subTest("the operator only sees the managed organization"):
+            operator = self._create_operator(organizations=[org1])
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=operator.username, password="tester")
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self._changelist_labels(),
+                ["menu-reboot", "location-batch", "group-batch"],
+            )
+            organization_options = self._autocomplete_options("organization")
+            self.assertIn(org1.name, organization_options)
+            self.assertNotIn(org2.name, organization_options)
+            self._search("menu-reboot")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self._filter_by("status", "failed")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["menu-reboot"])
+            self.open(
+                reverse(
+                    f"admin:{self.app_label}_batchcommand_change",
+                    args=[BatchCommand.objects.get(label="menu-reboot").pk],
+                )
+            )
+            filter_titles = [
+                title.text
+                for title in self.find_elements(
+                    by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value="#ow-changelist-filter .filter-title h3"
+                )
+            ]
+            self.assertIn("By status", filter_titles)
+            self.assertNotIn("By organization", filter_titles)
+
+    def test_organization_scoped_custom_command_type(self):
+        org1 = self._create_org(
+            name="scoped org", slug="scoped-org", id=UUID(SCOPED_ORGANIZATION_ID)
+        )
+        org2 = self._create_org(
+            name="org2", slug="org2", id=UUID(DEFAULT_ORGANIZATION_ID)
+        )
+        devices1 = self._create_devices(org1, 2)
+        self._create_devices(org2, 1)
+        self._create_batch_command(organization=org2, label="org2-batch")
+        operator1 = self._create_operator(
+            organizations=[org1], username="operator1", email="operator1@test.com"
+        )
+        operator2 = self._create_operator(
+            organizations=[org2], username="operator2", email="operator2@test.com"
+        )
+        default_types = ["Custom commands", "Reboot", "Change password"]
+
+        with self.subTest("the scoped organization is offered the custom type"):
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=operator1.username, password="tester")
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            self.assertEqual(
+                self._select_options("id_type"), default_types + ["UCI show"]
+            )
+
+        with self.subTest("the custom type renders the input of its schema"):
+            self._fill_wizard(
+                type="UCI show",
+                label="uci-show",
+                organization=org1,
+                command_input={"config": "network"},
+            )
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="review-command-btn").click()
+            self._wait_for_review_page()
+            summary = self._summary()
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Type"], "UCI show")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Command"], "config: network")
+            self.assertEqual(summary["Will run on"], "2 devices")
+            self.assertEqual(self._device_names(), [device.name for device in devices1])
+            self.find_element(by=By.ID, value="execute-button").click()
+            self._wait_for_batch_result("uci-show", "failed", 2)
+            command_type = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-type .readonly"
+            )
+            command_input = self.find_element(
+                by=By.CSS_SELECTOR, value=".field-formatted_input .readonly"
+            )
+            self.assertEqual(command_type.text, "UCI show")
+            self.assertEqual(command_input.text, "config: network")
+            self.assertEqual(self._command_statuses(), ["failed"] * 2)
+
+        with self.subTest("the changelist type filter offers the custom type"):
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertIn("UCI show", self._filter_options("type"))
+            self._filter_by("type", "UCI show")
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["uci-show"])
+
+        with self.subTest("another organization only sees the default types"):
+            self.web_driver.delete_all_cookies()
+            self.login(username=operator2.username, password="tester")
+            self.open(self.execute_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.execute_url)
+            self.hide_loading_overlay()
+            self.assertEqual(self._select_options("id_type"), default_types)
+            self.open(self.changelist_url)
+            self._wait_for_url(self.changelist_url)
+            self.assertEqual(self._changelist_labels(), ["org2-batch"])
+            self.assertNotIn("UCI show", self._filter_options("type"))
diff --git a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py
index 1574e2364..9be852d4e 100644
--- a/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py
+++ b/openwisp_controller/connection/tests/utils.py
@@ -1,12 +1,15 @@
 import os
 
+from django.contrib.messages import get_messages
 from mockssh import Server
 from swapper import load_model
 
 from openwisp_users.tests.utils import TestOrganizationMixin
 
 from ...config.tests.utils import CreateConfigTemplateMixin
+from ...tests.utils import TestAdminMixin
 from .. import settings as app_settings
+from ..admin import BatchCommandAdmin
 
 Credentials = load_model("connection", "Credentials")
 DeviceConnection = load_model("connection", "DeviceConnection")
@@ -151,6 +154,34 @@ def _create_command(self, device_conn=None, device_conn_opts={}, **kwargs):
         return Command.objects.create(**opts)
 
 
+class BatchCommandMixin(TestAdminMixin, CreateConnectionsMixin):
+    def _post_execute(self, **overrides):
+        data = {
+            "type": "custom",
+            "input": '{"command": "echo test"}',
+            "label": "test-label",
+            "notes": "",
+            "organization": "",
+            "group": "",
+            "location": "",
+        }
+        data.update(overrides)
+        return self.client.post(self.execute_url, data)
+
+    def _start_wizard(self, **overrides):
+        response = self._post_execute(**overrides)
+        assert response.status_code == 302, response.context["form"].errors
+        return self.client.session[BatchCommandAdmin.session_key]
+
+    def _post_confirm(self, token, excluded=""):
+        return self.client.post(
+            self.confirm_url, {"token": token, "excluded": excluded}
+        )
+
+    def _messages(self, response):
+        return [str(message) for message in get_messages(response.wsgi_request)]
+
+
 def _ping_command_callable(destination_address, interface_name=None):
     command = f"ping -c 4 {destination_address}"
     if interface_name:
@@ -160,3 +191,7 @@ def _ping_command_callable(destination_address, interface_name=None):
 
 def _restart_network_command_callable():
     return "/etc/init.d/networking restart"
+
+
+def _uci_show_command_callable(config):
+    return f"uci show {config}"

From 9a27af82560bdd185121b7785ee9c9dc832b6fe7 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: dee077 <deepanshu.sahu27@gmail.com>
Date: Sun, 23 Aug 2026 05:53:10 +0530
Subject: [PATCH 13/13] [docs] Add docs for mass command

---
 docs/user/intro.rst          |  6 +--
 docs/user/shell-commands.rst | 91 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++-------
 docs/user/websocket-api.rst  | 91 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
 3 files changed, 169 insertions(+), 19 deletions(-)

diff --git a/docs/user/intro.rst b/docs/user/intro.rst
index a9c9092d4..24b5095df 100644
--- a/docs/user/intro.rst
+++ b/docs/user/intro.rst
@@ -70,9 +70,9 @@ e.g.:
 
 - Sending configuration updates.
 - :doc:`Executing shell commands <shell-commands>`.
-- :doc:`Executing mass commands <shell-commands>`: Run a command on
-  multiple devices at once, see the :ref:`batch command API
-  <controller_batch_command_api>` for details.
+- :ref:`Executing mass commands <mass_commands>`: Run a command on
+  multiple devices at once, from the admin or with the :ref:`batch command
+  API <controller_batch_command_api>`.
 - Perform firmware upgrades via the additional :doc:`firmware upgrade
   module </firmware-upgrader/index>`.
 
diff --git a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
index c63374daf..4a29b5870 100644
--- a/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
+++ b/docs/user/shell-commands.rst
@@ -194,24 +194,83 @@ useful for rebooting all devices in a group, changing passwords across
 multiple devices, or running diagnostics on all devices in an
 organization.
 
-**Targeting options:**
+Sending a Mass Command
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 
-- ``organization``: All devices in an organization.
-- ``devices``: Explicit list of device UUIDs.
-- ``group``: Device group UUID.
-- ``location``: Location UUID.
+Open *Network Operations* > *Mass command execute* from the menu. The
+first step asks for:
 
-If ``devices`` is provided, ``group`` and ``location`` are ignored.
-Otherwise, ``group`` and ``location`` can be used together to narrow the
-target set within the organization.
+- the **command type** and its inputs, which change with the type
+  selected;
+- a **label** to identify the mass command later, and optional **notes**;
+- the **targets**: organization, device group and location.
 
-If no targeting options are provided, the command targets all devices in
-the organization. Superusers can omit ``organization`` to target all
-devices across organizations.
+The targets decide which devices are matched. Using more than one narrows
+the selection: a group and a location together match only the devices
+which are in that group *and* at that location.
 
-For superusers, ``organization`` is set automatically when ``group`` or
-``location`` is provided.
+Superusers can leave every target empty to run the command on all the
+devices of the system. Other users must choose at least one target, and
+only see the command types enabled for their organizations (see
+:ref:`openwisp_controller_organization_enabled_commands`).
 
-Refer to the :ref:`Batch Command API <controller_batch_command_api>`
-documentation for the available endpoints, request parameters, and
-examples.
+Reviewing the Devices
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The second step shows a summary of the command and the list of the devices
+it matched.
+
+Devices can be left out by unchecking them: the counter and the *Execute
+on N devices* button follow the selection, which is kept while paging
+through the list. *Back* returns to the first step with the form still
+filled in.
+
+The mass command starts when the *Execute* button is clicked.
+
+Following the Results
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+After executing, the mass command page opens. It shows the status of the
+mass command, how many devices are affected, the devices which were
+skipped, and one row per device with its status and output.
+
+The rows are updated in real time, so the page does not need to be
+reloaded to follow the progress. The table can be searched by device name
+and filtered by status, device group and location (and by organization for
+superusers).
+
+.. note::
+
+    Commands are executed in the background, one device at a time, so a
+    mass command sent to many devices keeps updating for a while after the
+    page is opened.
+
+Finding Past Mass Commands
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+*Network Operations* > *Mass command admin* lists the mass commands which
+were sent, most recent first.
+
+The list can be searched by label, notes, organization, device, location
+and group name, and filtered by organization, status, type, group and
+location. Clicking a mass command opens the page described above.
+
+Skipped Devices
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+A device is skipped when the command cannot be created for it, for example
+when the device has no access credentials, or when the command type is not
+enabled for its organization.
+
+Skipped devices are not executed, but they are shown: the **Skipped
+devices** field summarizes how many there are and why, and each one is
+listed in the results table with the *skipped* status and the reason as
+its output. They can be found with the status filter.
+
+Using the API
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+The same operations are available over the REST API, which also accepts an
+explicit list of devices instead of the targets described above. Refer to
+the :ref:`Batch Command API <controller_batch_command_api>` documentation
+for the available endpoints, request parameters and examples.
diff --git a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
index 781b3d59a..2ae54bbed 100644
--- a/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
+++ b/docs/user/websocket-api.rst
@@ -17,6 +17,8 @@ All endpoints:
   shown in JavaScript-style notation with inline comments for readability.
 - Push real-time updates after the connection is established.
 - Do not accept client messages: any data sent from the client is ignored.
+  The only exception is the mass command endpoint, which accepts the
+  single request documented below.
 
 Authentication and Authorization
 --------------------------------
@@ -161,3 +163,92 @@ After the connection is established, the server pushes a message every
 time the geometry of any mobile location in a subscribed organization is
 updated. The payload is identical to the one documented for the `2. Single
 Location Updates`_ endpoint.
+
+4. Mass Command Updates
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Connection URL:
+
+::
+
+    wss://<host>/ws/controller/batch-command/<batch_command_id>
+
+Scope
++++++
+
+Progress of a single mass command: its status and the result of every
+device it runs on. See :ref:`mass_commands`.
+
+Authorization
++++++++++++++
+
+A user is authorized if:
+
+- The user is a superuser, OR
+- The user is marked as staff AND has the ``connection.view_batchcommand``
+  or ``connection.change_batchcommand`` permission AND manages the
+  organization of the mass command.
+
+Real-time Updates
++++++++++++++++++
+
+The server pushes a message every time the mass command or one of its
+commands changes. The ``type`` field tells the two apart.
+
+When the mass command itself changes, for example when it moves from
+``idle`` to ``in-progress``:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "batch_status",
+        "id": "<uuid>",                  // Mass command identifier
+        "label": "<string>",             // Label given when it was sent
+        "status": "<string>",            // "idle", "in-progress", "success" or "failed"
+        "status_display": "<string>",    // Status as shown in the user interface
+        "affected_devices": <integer>,   // Number of devices the command runs on
+        "skipped_count": <integer>,      // Number of devices which were skipped
+        "skipped_preview": [ /* ... */], // First and last skipped devices, with the reason
+        "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices
+    }
+
+When the command of one device changes:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "command_update",
+        "id": "<uuid>",                  // Command identifier
+        "device": "<uuid>",              // Device identifier
+        "device_name": "<string>",       // Device name
+        "status": "<string>",            // "in-progress", "success" or "failed"
+        "status_display": "<string>",    // Status as shown in the user interface
+        "output": "<string>",            // Output collected so far
+        "modified": "<string>",          // Last modification, formatted for display
+        "index": <integer>,              // Position of the row, sent only for new commands
+        "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices, sent with "index"
+    }
+
+Requesting the Current State
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+
+A client which connects while the mass command is already running can ask
+for the results it missed:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "request_current_state",
+        "page": 1                        // Page of results, 20 rows per page
+    }
+
+The server replies with one message holding that page:
+
+.. code-block:: javascript
+
+    {
+        "type": "batch_state",
+        "batch_status": { /* ... */ },   // Same fields as the "batch_status" message
+        "commands": [ /* ... */ ],       // Rows of the requested page
+        "total_rows": <integer>          // Affected plus skipped devices
+    }